(Blie  i.  m.  Hill  ffitbrarg 


Nartlj  (Earnltna  S'tatP 
IniiiprHitg 


33413 

rrr\ 

'J  o 

1-130 


This  book  was  presented  by 


.line  Leach  iiimer 


'V(«7H 


^^540308 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


NOV  0 


W8- 


MAR  0  3  20fi3 


100M/7-85 


COMMERCIAL   VIOLET   CULTURE 


Double  Violet  Swanky  White.     Half  natural  size 


COMMERCIAL 
VIOLET  CULTURE 


A  TREATISE  ON  THE 

GROWING  AND  MARKETING  OF 

VIOLETS  FOR  PROFIT 


BY 

B.  T.  GALLOWAY 

DEAN    OF   THE   NEW    YORK    STATE    COLLEGE    OF   AGRICULTURE, 

CORNELL   UNIVERSITY,    ITHACA,  N.  Y.       FORMERLY  CHIEF 

OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  PLANT  INDUSTRY,  AND  ASSISTANT 

SECRETARY    OF    AGRICULTURE,  UNITED    STATES 

DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICULTURE, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


THIRD  EDITION 
REVISED 


NEW  YORK 

A.  T.  DELAMARE  PTG.  &  PUB.  CO.  LTD. 

1914 


Copyright 
Entered  According   to   Act  of  Congress 

IN  THE  years  1899  AND  1 903 

BY    A.  T.   DE  LA  Mare   Printing  and   Publishing   Co.   Ltd. 
NEW  York 

third  Edition,   revised 

copyrighted  1914  by 

a.  t.   de  la  mare  printing   and  publishing  company   ltd. 

NEW      YORK 


All  Rights  Reserved 


PREFACE 

Violet  growing  as  a  business  has  not  received 
the  attention  given  to  some  other  crops.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  violet  as  generally 
grown  is  less  profitable  than  the  rose,  carnation,  or 
even  the  chrysanthemum.  More  people  have 
embarked  in  this  business  and  failed  than  is  the 
case  with  any  other  crop,  and  for  this  reason  we 
beheve  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  promising  fields  for 
the  young,  energetic,  and  intelHgent  man  to  enter. 
Whoever  enters  it,  however,  must  recognize  at  the 
start  that  there  are  many  difficulties,  and  that  to 
be  successful  means  much  labor,  patience  and 
determination  to  overcome  all  obstacles.  The 
knowledge  necessary  to  succeed  can  come  only 
through  experience.  Reading  will  help,  but  with- 
out the  ability  to  apply  what  is  learned  by  reading 
little  progress  can  be  made.  We  have  gone  over 
this  ground  pretty  thoroughly,  and  in  looking  back 
can  see  that  our  experience  in  many  cases  was 
dearly  bought.  To  save  others  from  making  mis- 
takes that  fell  to  our  lot  we  have  in  some  instances 
made  statements  which  might  be  considered  as 
dogmatic.  We  have  done  this  for  the  reason  that 
we  were  many  times  led  away  by  general  state- 


ments,  which,  had  they  been  specific,  would  have 
saved  us  much  time  and  money.  We  have  endeav- 
ored to  give  every  necessary  detail  for  handhng 
the  soil,  erection  of  houses  and  frames,  the  manage- 
ment of  the  plants,  and  the  marketing  of  the  flowers, 
and  finally  we  have  shown  what  it  costs  to  grow  a 
violet  plant,  what  such  a  plant  under  fair  conditions 
should  yield,  and  what  in  our  experience  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  fair  profit. 

From  the  facts  given  it  will  be  seen  that  no  big 
fortunes  are  to  be  made  in  violet  growing;  but  if  a 
man  loves  Nature  and  that  quiet  and  peace  which 
work  with  her  should  always  bring,  there  is  a 
chance  here  to  open  her  doors.  Thus  a  love  for  all 
that  is  good  and  beautiful  may  be  cultivated  and 
a  respectable  hving  made  at  the  same  time. 

I  wish  to  express  my  thanks  to  P.  H.  Dorsett, 
who  shared  with  me  all  the  trials  and  vexations 
which  fall  to  the  lot  of  beginners  in  this  work.  He 
is  now  a  successful  grower,  and  many  of  the  illus- 
trations given  are  from  his  houses. 

B.  T.  Galloway. 
Washington,  D.  C, 

July  I  St,  1899. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 


Since  the  first  edition  of  this  little  work  was 
written,  four  years  ago,  there  have  been  some 
changes  in  the  methods  of  growing  violets  for 
market.  The  writer  has  seen  a  number  of  formerly 
successful  growers  go  out  of  the  business,  and  others 
without  any  previous  experience  succeed  astonish- 
ingly. This  leads  us  to  repeat  what  was  stated  in 
our  first  preface,  namely,  that  because  so  many 
people  fail  with  this  crop  we  beheve  it  is  one  of  the 
most  promising  for  the  intelligent  and  energetic 
man  to  take  up.  In  this  edition  we  have  made 
certain  changes  which  experience  has  taught  us, 
and  offer  it  with  thanks  for  the  kind  reception  given 
the  first  work.  Figures  62,  64,  66  and  68  are  from 
Bull.  27,  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  we  are  indebted  to  Dr.  L.  O. 
Howard,  chief  of  the  division,  for  the  electrotypes. 

B.  T.  Galloway. 
Washington,  D.  C, 

May  1st,  1903. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION 


During  the  eleven  years  since  the  second  edition 
of  ''  Commercial  Violet  Culture  "  was  issued,  it 
has  been  steadily  in  demand,  and  the  number  of 
orders  awaiting  to  be  satisfied  upon  the  appearance 
of  the  present  edition  attest  the  high  value  of  this 
httle  work,  and  bespeak  for  it  continued  usefulness. 

The  demand  for  violet  flow^ers  fluctuates  con- 
siderably, but  their  sale  is  always  an  important 
part  of  the  w^holesale  and  retail  florists'  trade.  One 
firm  alone,  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  sold  160,000 
violet  blooms  on  a  St.  Valentine's  Day,  and  upon 
another  occasion  a  diff"erent  firm  disposed  of  150,000. 
These  are  but  typical  of  other  transactions  in  the 
violet  market.  Just  what  the  actual  yearly  turn- 
over amounts  to,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know, 
but,  assuredly,  the  figures  would  be  astonishing. 

The  industry  is  still  enlarging,  for  the  violet  is 
the  favorite  of  the  people.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
classed  as  the  third  most  popular  of  the  commercial 
flowers. 

May,   1914 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


Chapter  I  Page 

Single  Varieties 19 

Russian  Violet 19 

Welsiana 19 

Governor  Herrick 20 

Luxonne 20 

California,  or  Madame  E.  Arene 20 

Princess  of  Wales,  or  Princess  de  Galles 20 

La  France 21 

Dorsett 21 

Double  Varieties 21 

Neapolitan 21 

Lady  Hume  Campbell 24 

Marie  Louise 24 

Farquhar  and  Imperial 24 

Swanley  White 25 

Madam  Millet 25 

Origin  and  Introduction  of  Varieties 25 

Culture,  Past  and  Present 31 

Violet  Farmers 32 

Chapter    II 

The  Soil 37 

Chapter    III 

Construction  and  Heating  of  Houses  and  Frames 50 

Construction  of  Houses 50 

Heating 64 

Construction  of  Frames 88 

Chapter    IV 

Water  Supply 96 


Chapter   V  n 

Page 

Propagating,    Selecting,    Planting,    Cleaning,    Watering, 

etc lOO 

Propagating lOO 

Selection  of  Stock  for  Vigor  and  Productiveness 117 

Planting 124 

Cleaning,  Watering,  Syringing,  Mulching  and  Feeding.  132 

Chapter   VI 

Temperature  Conditions  and  Ventilation 138 

Chapter   VII 

Handling  and  Marketing  the  Crop 148 

Chapter   VIII 

Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies 170 

Diseases  and  Their  Treatment 170 

Spot,  or  Spot  Disease 172 

Wilt,  or  Stem  Rot 181 

Nanism,  or  Stuntedness 185 

Scald,  or  Edge  Burn 189 

Oedema,  or  Wart  Disease 193 

Crown  Rot 197 

Root  Galls 198 

Bud  Nematodes 201 

Insects  and  Other  Pests 203 

Red  Spider 203 

Green  and  Brown  Aphides 212 

Cut  Worms 221 

Sawfly 223 

Gallfly  Maggots 224 

Phlyctaenia  rubigalis 229 

Chapter    IX 

Cost  of  Production  and  Profits 230 

Chapter   X 

Violet  Growing  for  Beginners 239 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Frontispiece — Swanley   White   Double   Violet 6 

1 .  Dorsett  Single  Violet 22 

2.  Dorsett  Single  Violet,  Bunched 23 

3.  Princess  of  Wales  Single  Violet 26 

4.  Marie  Louise  Double  Violet 28 

5.  Gov.  Herrick  Single  Violet 29 

6.  Characteristic    Growth    of   California    (Single)    and 

Marie  Louise  (Double)  Compared 30 

7.  Mixing  Soil.     Spreading  Manure  in  Layers  Between 

the  Soil 43 

8.  Mixing    SoiL     Breaking    and    Pulverizing    the    Sod 

Preparatory  to  Putting  It  Down  with  Layers  of 
Manure 44 

9.  Sash  House  with  Sashes  Off 51 

10.  House  Twelve  Feet  Wide,  Six   Feet  to  Ridge;  Side 

Ventilators  of  Glass 52 

11.  Type    of    Even-Span    House,    Twelve    Feet    Wide, 

Showing  Method  of  Running  Heating  Pipes  and 
Constructing  Beds 53 

12.  Type  of  Even-Span  House,  Twelve  Feet  Wide,  with 

Two   Deep  Walks,   Showing   Heating   Pipes   and 
Method  of  Constructing  Beds,  Roofs  and  Ends .  .      55 

13.  Shed  at  North  End  of  Houses,  Showing  Method  of 

Construction 56 

14.  Interior  of  Shed  Shown  in  Figure  13 57 

15.  Roofs  of  Twelve- Foot  Houses,  Showing  Method  of 

Construction  and  of  Attaching  Ventilators 58 


Page 

1 6.  A   Twelve- Foot    House,   Showing   Method   of  Con- 

structing and  Attaching  Side  Ventilators 6i 

17.  Fastening  Pipes  to  Posts  by  Tin  Clips 65 

18.  Fastening  Pipes  to  Posts  by  Bent-Wire  Nails 65 

19.  Interior  of  Twelve-Foot  House,  Showing  Method  of 

Constructing  South  End  and  Door 66 

20.  Interior  of  House,  Showing  Method  of  Connecting 

Flow  Pipe  with  Four  Returns 67 

21.  Ridge   and    Furrow    House    Construction.     Method 

of  Making  Gutter  and  Attaching  Sash  Bar 68 

22.  Interior  Construction.      Method  of  Connecting  Re- 

turns of  Hot  Water  Pipes  at  North  End  of  House. .      69 

23.  Construction  of  Single  House.      Method  of  Making 

Gutter,    Attaching    Sash    Bar    and    Fitting    Side 
Ventilators 70 

24.  Method  of  Splicing  Ridge 72 

25.  House  Twenty-four  Feet  Wide;  Posts  Set  and  Shed 

at  North  EAd  Built  First 73 

26.  Constructing  House  Twenty-four  Feet  Wide;   Second 

Step,  Making  Beds  and  Walks 74 

27.  Constructing  House  Twenty-four  Feet  Wide;  Third 

Step,     Running     Gutters     and     Notching     Plate 
Around  Posts 75 

28.  Temporary  House,  Made  of  Sashes  Nailed  Together 

at   the   Top,    Supporting    Posts    Two    by    Three 
Inches 83 

29.  Simple  Coldframe,  Six  Feet  Wide  and  Continuous ....     85 

30.  Violets  in  Frame,  Covered  with  Lath  Screen 87 

31.  Violets  in  Heated  Frames;  Shaded  by  Rough  Boards 

Five  Feet  Above  Beds 89 

32.  Violets    in    Heated    Frames.     Summer    Shading    by 

Boards 91 


Page 

33.  Cuttings    with    Hard,    Wiry    Roots,    from    Divided 

Crowns 1 01 

34.  Various  Kinds  of  Cuttings  from  a  Divided  Crown.  .  .  102 

35.  Common  Form  of  Cutting  from  Divided  Crown 104 

36.  Lath  Box,  or  Flat,  for  Rooted  Cuttings 106 

37.  Sand-Rooted    Cuttings,    Ready    to    Plant    in    Flats 

Filled  with  Soil tig 

38.  Sand-Rooted  Cuttings,   Ideal  Type,   Ready  to  Put 

in  Soil 112 

39.  Pedigree  Plant 118 

40.  Bed  of  Pedigree  Plants 120 

41.  Violet  Culture  Under  Lath  Sheds  in  California 128 

42.  Field  Culture  of  Violets  in  Virginia 130 

43.  Violets  Bunched  for  Philadelphia  Market,  Some  of 

the  Flowers  Projecting  from  the  Bunch 1 50 

44.  Violets    Bunched    for    Washington    Market,    Using 

Princess  of  Wales  Leaves 152 

45.  Picking  Violets 1 58 

46.  Leaves    of    California    Violet    Wired    Together    for 

Bunching  Flowers 160 

47.  Leatherette  Shipping  Box,  Open 162 

48.  Shipping    Box    Showing    Wire    Screen    for    Holding 

Bunches 163 

49.  Shipping  Box,  Closed  and  Strapped 164 

30.  Box  of  Violets  Packed  for  Market 166 

5 1 .  Violets  Bunched  for  Market 168 

52.  Spot  Disease.     Early  Effects  on  Foliage i73 

53.  Spot  Disease  on  Hardy  English  Violets 175 

54.  Spot  Disease  Artificially  Produced 177 

55.  Rooted    Campbell    Cuttings,    Showing    Effects    of 

Thielavia  on  the  Roots 182 


Page 

56.  Plants  Stunted  by  Strong  Fertilizer 186 

57.  Edge  Burn,  Brought  on  by  Cold  Soil 189 

58.  Leaves  and  Flowers  Injured  by  Botrytis 191 

59.  Oedema,  or  Wart  Disease 194 

60.  Example  of  Crown  Rot 196 

61.  Root  Galls 199 

62.  Red  Spider 205 

63.  Nozzle  Used  in  Spraying  Plants  for  the  Destruction 

of  Red  Spider.  .  : 206 

64.  Brown  Aphides 215 

65.  Method    of    Determining    the    Cubic    Contents    of 

Houses 219 

66.  Sawfly 226 

67.  Injuries  to  Violet  Leaves  by  Gallfly  Maggots 227 

68.  Gallfly 228 

69.  Larvae  and  Moths  of  Phlyctsenia  rubigalis 229 


COMMERCIAL    VIOLET    CULTURE 


CHAPTER  I 

The  sweet  violet,  Viola  odorata,  from  which 
our  cultivated  forms  have  doubtless  arisen,  is  widely 
distributed  over  Europe  and  Asia,  but  is  not  found 
native  in  America.  The  violet  has  been  cultivated 
from  remote  times,  first  probably  as  a  medicinal 
plant,  but  later  to  satisfy  a  love  for  the  beautiful. 
Following  are  some  of  the  more  important  forms 
now  grown: 

SINGLE   VARIETIES 

Russian  Violet.  Very  hardy  and  free  flower- 
ing; flowers  medium  violet*  in  color,  fairly  good 
size. 

Welsiana.  Plant    much    branched;    foliage 

rather  soft,  light  green;  flowers  large,  on  long  stalks; 
color  true  violet;  a  valuable  variety,  but  not  so 
amenable  to  culture  as  some  others. 


*  In  referring  to  the  colors  of  violets  we  have  used  Ridgway's  Nomen- 
clature of  Colors,  published  by  Mrs.  Ridgway,  3447  Oakwood  Tee., 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  principal  colors  are  the  true  violet,  as  will  be 
found  in  Princess  of  Wales,  and  the  various  shades  of  mauve.  Mauves 
are  a  mixture  of  white  with  violet.  The  mauves  therefore  may  be  dark 
or  light,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  white  present.  Marie  Louise  is  a 
true  mauve;  Lady  Hume  Campbell,  a  light  mauve. 


20  VARIETIES 

Governor  Herrick.  This  is  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite varieties  in  the  cut  flower  trade  at  the 
present  time,  owing  to  its  vigor,  great  length  of 
stem,  large,  bold  flowers,  and  distinctive,  bright 
rose-violet  color.  It  is  one  of  the  best  for  Winter, 
but  is  totally  devoid  of  fragrance. 

LuxoNNE.  A  valuable  variety,  with  large 
flowers  of  a  dark  violet  color;  foliage  stronger 
in  texture  and  of  a  richer  green  than  the  or- 
dinary Russian  violet;  flowers  from  September 
to  Spring. 

California,  or  Madame  E.  Arene.  We  use 
the  name  Cahfornia  because  it  has  become  so  well 
established  that  it  is  not  practicable  at  this  time  to 
change  it.  This  violet  is  unquestionably  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  single  sorts.  The  plant  grows 
like  a  weed  and  flowers  pretty  regularly  throughout 
the  entire  Winter;  fohage  soft  and  lightish  green  in 
color;  flowers  large,  light  violet  in  color,  with  stems 
sometimes  eight  inches  to  a  foot  in  length. 

Princess  of  Wales,  or  Princesse  de  Galles. 
All  things  considered,  this  is  the  best  single  violet 
that  has  come  to  our  attention.  The  plant  is  very 
vigorous,  and  has  the  compact  habit  of  growth  of 
the  double  sorts;  leaves  dark,  rich  green,  of  firm 
texture,  making  them  very  valuable  for  bunching; 
flowers  large,  of  a  true  rich  violet  color,  and  borne 
on  long,  strong  stems. 


VARIETIES  21 

La  France.  A  fine,  large,  prolific  violet; 
flowers  throughout  the  season,  not  so  abundantly 
as  Princess  of  Wales,  but  the  flowers  are  larger  and 
have  longer  stems;  a  valuable  variety  for  growing  in 
frames  or  houses;  foliage  not  so  good  for  bunching 
as  Princess  of  Wales,  but  better  than  Cahfornia. 

DoRSETT.  A  very  prolific  violet,  flowering 
throughout  the  entire  season,  often  giving  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  three  hundred  flowers  per  plant. 
The  plant  is  exceedingly  vigorous,  and  has  the  com- 
pact habit  of  the  double  sorts;  leaves  dark,  rich 
green,  firm  in  texture  and  fine  for  bunching;  flow- 
ers middle  size,  of  a  rich  violet  color,  but  lacking 
in  odor.  This  violet  was  secured  several  years  ago 
from  Virginia  by  P.  H.  Dorsett,  formerly  of  Gar- 
rett Park,  Maryland,  under  the  name  of  Princess 
of  Wales,  which  it  only  shghtly  resembles.  It  is 
a  most  valuable  sort  for  growing  for  flowers  or 
foliage,  and  on  account  of  its  ease  of  propagation 
and  vigor  is  quite  profitable.     (See  Figs,  i  and  2.) 

There  are  single  violets,  white,  yellow  and  pink 
in  color,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  details 
in  regard  to  them,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  prac- 
tically no  commercial  demand  for  them. 

DOUBLE  VARIETIES 

Neapolitan.  One  of  the  oldest  of  the  double 
sorts,  and  doubtless  the  parent  of  a  number  of  our 
most  valuable  varieties;  growth  compact;  leaves 


22 


VARIETIES 


-Single  violet  Dor  sell.     Reduced  one-half 


VARIETIES 


23 


^.—Single  violet  Dor  sett,  bunched.     Reduced  one-halj 


24  VARIETIES 

rather  small;  flowers  pushing  up  straight  through 
the  crown,  borne  on  strong,  straight  stems;  color 
very  light  mauve  (commonly  called  light  lavender); 
it  is  hardy  and  comparatively  free  flowering; 
blooms  from  September  to  Spring. 

Lady  Hume  Campbell.  More  vigorous  than 
the  last,  with  larger  leaves  and  flowers;  the  flowers 
push  up  through  the  crown  and  stand  above  the 
leaves  on  straight,  strong  stems;  color  of  the  flow- 
ers, when  properly  grown,  a  mauve,  several  shades 
lighter  than  Marie  Louise;  flowers  freely  and  con- 
tinuously from  September  to  May,  and  is  com- 
paratively free  from  disease. 

Marie  Louise.  The  most  widely  cultivated 
violet  in  this  country,  and  the  one  for  which  there 
is  the  greatest  demand.  This  violet  is  not  so  vigor- 
ous as  the  last,  and  is  therefore  more  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  a  number  of  diseases;  the  leaves  are 
large,  of  a  rich  green  color,  but  inclined  to  be  soft; 
the  flowers  push  out  from  the  sides  of  the  crown  and 
are  usually  found  resting  on  the  ground;  flower 
stalks  not  so  straight  as  Campbell,  making  the 
flowers  more  difficult  to  bunch;  color  of  flowers 
true  mauve;  base  of  petals  white,  splotched  with 
red.  The  red  marks  are  very  characteristic  of  this 
variety,  and  never  occur,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  in 
any  except  closely  related  strains. 

Farquhar  and  Imperial.     Both  of  these  forms, 


ORIGIN    AND    INTRODUCTION    OF    VARIETIES      25 

SO  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  determine,  are  merely 
vigorous  strains  of  Marie  Louise. 

Of  other  double  varieties  there  may  be  men- 
tioned SwANLEY  White  (pure  white)  and  Madam 
Millet  (pink).  The  former  is  grown  in  limited 
numbers  commercially,  but  there  is  no  great  de- 
mand for  it,  and  for  the  latter,  which  is  very  little 
grown,  no  demand  at  all. 

ORIGIN  AND  INTRODUCTION  OF  VARIETIES 

The  demand  for  single  violets  in  this  country  is 
steadily  increasing,  and  much  interest  is  therefore 
manifested  in  securing  varieties  suitable  for  forc- 
ing which  will  bunch  well  and  give  abundant 
odor.  Owing  to  the  increased  demand  for  singles, 
and,  furthermore,  for  the  reason  that  the  leaves  of 
certain  varieties  are  exceedingly  useful  in  bunch- 
ing, it  would  be  well  for  every  grower  to  devote 
a  part  of  his  space  to  some  vigorous  kind  like  Prin- 
cess of  Wales,  La  France,  or  the  Dorsett  violet. 
About  eight  hundred  plants  of  any  of  these  varieties 
will,  with  good  cultivation,  give  enough  leaves  for 
bunching  the  flowers  from  eight  thousand  Campbell 
or  Louise.  In  this  way  the  fohage  of  the  Campbell 
or  Louise  is  left  to  support  the  flowers — a  great  ad- 
vantage, especially  where  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  vig- 
orous leaf  growth  on  the  double  varieties  named. 
The  Princess  of  Wales,  La  France  and  Dorsett  will, 
with  even  ordinary  care,  yield  a  sufficient  number 


3- — Single  violet  Princess  of  Wales.     Half  natural  size 


ORIGIN    AND    INTRODUCTION    OF    VARIETIES      27 

of  flowers  to  pay  well  for  the  space  devoted  to  them, 
so  that  altogether  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  them. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  Marie  Louise  and  Campbell  violets.  The 
Marie  Louise  has  been  known  under  various  names 
in  France  and  Germany  for  sixty  or  seventy  years. 
It  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1871  by 
John  Cook,  of  Baltimore.  Mr.  Cook  obtained  the 
stock  through  Schuer,  of  Heidelberg,  Germany,  who 
advertised  it  as  the  best  violet  belonging  to  the 
Parma  class.  After  growing  it  for  two  years  Mr. 
Cook  sold  large  quantities  of  his  stock  to  Peter 
Henderson  and  John  Henderson,  of  New  York,  and 
to  Henry  A.  Dreer,  of  Philadelphia.  The  flowers 
created  a  sensation,  and  the  plants,  in  consequence, 
were  in  great  demand. 

We  find  a  record  of  the  Lady  Hume  Campbell 
violet  as  far  back  as  1884  in  the  "  Gardeners' 
Chronicle,"  of  London,  England.  There  it  is  said 
that  the  variety  had  been  seen  growing  in  the  gar- 
dens of  Harefield  Court,  Rickmansworth,  and  that 
it  was  exceedingly  vigorous.  It  was  regarded  as  a 
vigorous  strain  of  NeapoHtan.  It  is  stated  further 
that  the  variety  had  been  brought  from  abroad 
several  years  before  by  Lady  Hume  Campbell  and 
planted  in  her  gardens  at  Highgrove,  Watford. 
Soon  after  it  was  noticed  at  Lady  Campbell's  place 
by  Charles  Turner,  who  bought  the  stock  and  pre- 
sumably put  it  on  the  market.     It  was  imported  in 


4- — Double  violet  Marie  Louise.     Reduced  one-halj 


5- — Single  violet  Gov.  Herrick.     Half  natural  size 


30    ORIGIN    AND    INTRODUCTION    OF    VARIETIES 

1892  by  H.  Heubner,  of  Groton,  Massachusetts, 
who  obtained  his  stock  from  Beachy,  in  Devon- 
shire, England.  Mr.  Heubner  informed  the  writer 
that  he  imported  the  so-called   *'  De  Parme  "   at 


6. — Characteristic    growth    of   Calijornia    (single)    and    Marie 
Louise  (double)  compared 

the  same  time,  and  he  considers  it  to  be  in  every  way 
identical  with  CampbelL  Parme  de  Toulouse  and 
Parme  sans  Filet,  both  grown  for  a  number  of  years 
in  France  and  catalogued  by  Millet  and  others,  seem 


ORIGIN    AND    INTRODUCTION     OF     VARIETIES      3I 

to  be  the  same  as  Campbell.  It  is  probable,  there- 
fore, that  the  Campbell  originated  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  that  it  was  brought  to  England  about 
1879  or  1880,  and  was  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1892,  or  possibly  earher.  Be  that  as  it 
may,  the  variety  has  made  a  place  for  itself,  and  is 
now,  owing  to  its  great  vigor  and  productiveness, 
gradually  taking  the  place  of  the  Marie  Louise  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

CULTURE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT 

Of  the  early  days  of  violet  growing  in  this 
country,  that  is,  the  work  as  it  was  carried  on  up 
to  twenty-six  years  ago,  Httle  need  be  said.  In  most 
cases  the  methods  employed  were  crude  when  looked 
at  from  the  present  point  of  view,  just  as  our  meth- 
ods will,  no  doubt,  be  considered  crude  by  those 
who  follow  us.  The  plants,  for  the  most  part,  were 
grown  in  frames  or  in  pots,  under  the  mistaken 
idea  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  them  near  the 
glass.  Even  now,  despite  the  rapid  advances  made 
in  greenhouse  construction,  it  is  rare  to  find  a  mod- 
ern violet  estabhshment  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word.  Sash  houses  are  still  largely  in  vogue,  and 
httle  resemble  the  compact,  business-hke  structures 
used  for  carnations  and  roses.  We  are  at  a  loss 
to  account  for  this  except  on  the  ground  that 
the  plant  is  really  one  which  at  times  will  do 
fairly  well  under  seemingly  very  poor  treatment; 


32  VIOLET  FARMERS 

while  again  all  the  coaxing  and  luxurious  surround- 
ings imaginable  cannot  make  it  thrive.  It  is  a 
truth  well  established  that  more  people  go  into 
violet  growing  and  fail  than  is  the  case  with  the 
growing  of  any  other  crop  under  glass.  Time  and 
time  again  we  have  seen  men  start  into  the  business 
with  no  experience  and  nothing  but  the  poorest 
kind  of  equipment,  and  succeed  for  the  first  two  or 
three  years  in  a  truly  remarkable  way.  Then 
trouble  comes  in  one  form  or  another,  and  in  two 
or  three  years  more  the  grower  has  passed  out  of 
the  field.  It  requires  about  five  years  to  definitely 
determine  what  a  man  with  ordinary  facilities  can 
do  in  this  matter.  Of  course  he  will  have  his  ups 
and  downs,  and  the  temptation  will  be  strong  at 
times  to  give  up  the  task  and  take  up  some  other 
crop.  Such  moments  are  his  worst,  for  if  he  sticks 
to  his  one  problem,  and  endeavors  to  profit  by  his 
experience,  he  will  in  the  end  succeed. 

Violet  Farmers 

Coming  back  to  the  question  of  how  violets  are 
grown  today,  we  find  that  those  engaged  in  the 
work  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  (i)  the  ex- 
tensive group,  comprising  what  may  be  called 
violet  farmers,  and  (2)  the  intensive,  comprising 
violet  growers  proper.  Of  course,  one  will  find 
numerous  gradations,  but  for  practical  purposes 
they  may  be  classed  under  the  foregoing  heads. 


VIOLET    FARMERS  33 

Violet  farming  is  often  practiced  in  more  or  less  re- 
mote country  districts,  where  land  and  labor  are 
cheap.  Houses  are  seldom  used  for  such  work,  but 
frames  are  resorted  to,  and  the  care  of  the  plants  is 
left  to  boys — sometimes  colored,  sometimes  white^ 
overlooked  by  the  owner  of  the  place,  or  perhaps  by 
a  foreman  or  two.  In  a  number  of  cases  this  method 
is  practiced  by  women,  and  not  without  success. 
Of  course,  there  are  numerous  places  where  work  of 
this  kind  could  be  carried  on  with  a  fair  prospect  of 
success.  There  are  many  farms  situated  at 
seventy-five,  one  hundred,  and  even  two  hundred 
or  three  hundred  miles  from  our  large  cities,  which, 
with  ordinary  farm  crops,  barely  yield  a  hving.  In 
such  cases  a  young  or  middle-aged  person  might 
take  up  this  work  and  make  it  more  profitable  than 
the  mere  growing  of  farm  crops.  In  all  such  cases, 
however,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  succeed 
there  must  be  work  day  and  night,  perhaps,  for  a 
time;  and  while  it  may  never  be  the  heavy,  kilhng 
labor  which  farm  work  is  often  made  to  be,  it  is 
ceaseless,  tiresome  toil  just  the  same. 

The  intensive  grower,  on  the  other  hand,  should 
endeavor  to  locate  within  easy  driving  distance  or 
shipping  distance  of  his  principal  market;  that  is, 
he  should,  if  possible,  be  located  so  that  he  can  pick 
his  flowers  and  have  them  in  his  dealer's  hands 
within  an  hour,  or  earlier  if  possible.  It  is  the 
5weet,  delicious  fragrance  that  is  one  of  the  chief 


34  VIOLET  FARMERS 

qualities  of  this  flower,  and  the  moment  it  is  picked 
it  begins  to  lose  this  all-important  thing.  There- 
fore, endeavor  to  locate  so  that  you  are  in  quick 
reach  of  your  principal  dealer,  keeping  constantly 
in  mind  the  fact  that  your  success  depends  largely 
on  his  success.  Proximity  to  market  should  be 
set  down  as  the  first  requisite  to  success,  but  not 
the  only  one  by  any  means.  Character  of  the 
soil,  and  facilities  for  obtaining  manure,  water,  and 
other  necessities,  must  be  considered.  These  fac- 
tors will  all  be  described  in  detail  under  their 
proper  heads. 

Last,  and  most  important  of  all,  the  man  him- 
self must  be  considered,  or,  if  possible,  must  con- 
sider himself.  No  man  can  learn  to  grow  violets 
from  reading  books,  nor  can  he  expect  to  get  this 
knowledge  from  watching  others.  He  can  get  help 
and  suggestions,  of  course,  but  the  problems  them- 
selves he  must  work  out  alone.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  luck  in  growing  this  crop,  although  it  often 
looks  that  way.  A  man  succeeds  because  he  has 
the  necessary  knowledge  to  take  advantage  of  the 
little  things  and  make  the  most  of  them.  Another 
fails  because  he  does  not  see,  or  fails  to  realize,  the 
importance  of  the  Httle  hourly,  and  we  might  al- 
most say  minutelyy  occurring  things  which  are 
necessary  to  make  the  plants  grow  and  thrive.  It 
is  not  sufficient  to  be  able  to  put  on  water,  mix 
soil,  to  stoke  a  fire,  or  to  feed  and  propagate  the 


VIOLET  FARMERS  35 

plants  properly.  The  man  may  do  all  these  ac- 
cording to  the  very  best  practices  and  yet  his 
plants  will  never  grow  and  bloom  hke  those  of  the 
man  who  has  the  intuitive  knowledge  to  realize 
the  Httle  needs  and  to  make  the  cumulative  effects 
of  this  knowledge  felt  in  just  the  right  way  and  at 
the  right  time.  All  this  is  hard  to  put  into  words, 
and  will  not  be  understood  at  all  by  some  readers; 
but  it  is  seen  everywhere,  from  the  lady  who  grows 
only  a  few  house  plants,  but  always  succeeds  with 
them,  to  the  grower  with  his  acres  of  glass  in  which 
every  plant  seems  to  spring  into  vigorous  growth 
so  long  as  his  watchful  eye  is  upon  them  and  his 
hand  is  present  to  guide  and  direct  the  various 
operations. 

The  successful  grower,  then,  is  born,  not  made; 
for  it  is  not  a  question  of  mechanics,  but  one  of 
brains  and  natural  aptitude;  and  therefore,  if 
there  is  not  an  inherent  love  for  plants^that  feel- 
ing of  sympathy  between  you  and  them — some 
other  work  w^ould  better  be  undertaken.  With 
love  for  the  work,  and  appreciation  of  every  need 
of  the  plants,  success  will  in  the  end  result,  even 
though  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  surroundings 
must  be  overcome. 

To  conclude,  the  whole  gist  of  this  argument  is 
that  surroundings,  of  course,  count  for  a  consider- 
able amount  in  such  work,  but  more  than  all  the 
rest,  success  depends  on  the  man  himself,  or  rather 


36  VIOLET    FARMERS 

on  what  he  has  in  him.  The  man  who  truly  suc- 
ceeds in  this  work  will  succeed  in  almost  any  busi- 
ness, for  all  success  really  traces  back  to  one  thing, 
namely,  ability  to  see,  to  grasp,  and  to  utilize  little 
things  to  the  best  advantage.  Look  after  these, 
and  the  big  ones  will  look  after  themselves. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOIL  37 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  SOIL 

The  soil  forms  the  basis  for  all  work  in  plant 
growth,  and  it  is  proper,  therefore,  that  it  should  be 
discussed  first.  Violets  will  grow  on  almost  any 
soil,  but  to  obtain  the  best  results  it  is  necessary  to 
pay  attention  to  certain  important  characters  of  the 
soil,  particularly  those  relating  to  its  physical  prop- 
erties. The  importance  of  the  relation  of  the 
physical  properties  of  the  soil,  that  is,  texture,  tem- 
perature and  moisture,  to  plant  growth  is  not  fully 
appreciated.  By  texture  is  meant  the  character  of 
the  particles  which  make  up  the  soil,  while  struc- 
ture has  to  do  with  the  arrangement  of  these  par- 
ticles and  their  relation  to  each  other.  The 
particles  or  grains  of  which  soils  are  composed  vary 
greatly  in  size,  and  to  distinguish  them  they  have 
received  certain  conventional  names,  such  as  clay, 
fine  silt,  silt,  fine  sand,  sand,  etc.  The  clay  par- 
ticles are  extremely  minute,  silt  grains  are  larger, 
and  so  on  until  we  have  coarse  sand  or  gravel,  with 
grains  1-25  to  1-12  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Upon 
the  amounts  of  the  various  constituents,  i.  e.,  clay, 
fine  silt,  silt,  fine  sand,  etc.,  depends  the  porosity  of 


38  SOIL 

the  soil,  the  readiness  with  which  the  air  penetrates 
it  and  water  moves  through  it,  its  water-holding 
capacity,  and  finally  its  temperature.* 

By  varying  the  texture  of  the  soil  its  water 
content  is  varied,  its  capacity  for  heat  is  modified, 
and  so  on  until  every  important  factor,  including 
food  in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  word,  is  in- 
volved. To  these  variations  the  plant  adapts  it- 
self, and  the  result  may  be  extensive  leaf  develop- 
ment with  few  or  no  flowers,  or  vice  versa,  a  weak- 
ened condition  of  the  tissues  (making  the  plant  sub- 
ject to  the  attacks  of  enemies,  especially  fungi), 
and  so  on  through  a  Hst  of  other  possibiHties.  To 
illustrate  more  fully,  we  may  say  that  in  our  experi- 
ence the  Lady  Hume  Campbell  violet  seems  to 
thrive  best  on  relatively  light  soil,  that  is,  a  soil 
which  contains  a  comparatively  small  amount  of 
clay.  The  Marie  Louise,  on  the  other  hand,  does 
best  with  more  clay,  or,  in  other  words,  a  heavier 
soil.  The  violet  soils  of  the  Poughkeepsie  region 
contain  from  eight  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  clay,  and 
it  is  here  that  the  highest  success  is  attained  with 
this  particular  variety.  In  parts  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  where  the  Campbell  violet  is  grown  ex- 
tensively, the  soils  frequently  contain  six  to  eight 
per  cent,  of  clay,  so  that  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  considerable  difference  as  regards  the  structure 


*  Galloway,   B.  T.,  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
1895,  p.  250. 


TEXTURE  39 

of  the  two  classes  of  soils.  It  follows,  of  _course, 
that  where  soils  showing  so  much  difference  in 
structure  are  used,  the  plants  in  each  case  have 
different  sets  of  factors  to  which  they  must  adapt 
themselves,  and  in  doing  this  they  may  be  so 
modified  as  to  affect  materially  the  development  of 
the  flowers. 

Soils  of  both  the  heavy  and  moderately  heavy 
types  are  found  in  many  places,  and  if  they  do  not 
occur  naturally,  the  desired  effects  may  be  approxi- 
mated by  combinations  of  light  and  heavy  soils. 
We  have  never  found  it  satisfactory  to  lighten  heavy 
soil  by  mixing  in  sand  alone.  This  takes  away  the 
life  of  the  soil,  and  plants  never  succeed  so  well  in 
it  as  when  the  desired  conditions  are  produced  by 
mixing  a  heavy  and  a  light  soil.  For  example,  we 
may  have  in  one  part  of  a  field  a  soil  containing 
fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  clay,  and  in  another 
one  containing  four  or  five  per  cent.  By  mixing 
these  two  soils  in  equal  proportion  a  combination  is 
effected  which,  other  conditions  being  equal,  will 
prove  better  for  violets  than  either  soil  used  alone. 

Of  course,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  con- 
ditions for  plants  under  glass  are  different  from 
those  out-of-doors.  Outside,  the  plant  has  to  take 
what  it  can  get  in  the  way  of  water,  air,  and  other 
important  conditions  for  growth,  while  inside  these 
are,  in  a  measure,  made  to  order  by  the  grower  him- 
self.   It  follows,  therefore,  that  even  where  the  soil  is 


40  SOIL 

not  what  it  should  be,  the  grower  has  it  within  his 
power,  to  a  large  extent,  to  overcome  the  difficulties 
by  a  proper  manipulation  of  the  surroundings. 

This  question  of  the  structure  of  the  soil  and 
its  relation  to  plant  growth  is  a  rather  difficult  one 
to  explain  in  words.  The  practical  grower  learns 
by  experience  how  to  judge  a  soil  largely  by  its 
appearance  and  its  "  feel  "  when  taken  in  the  hand. 
The  facts  given  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  structure 
of  soil  on  plant  growth,  therefore,  help  a  novice  by 
acquainting  him  with  matters  he  ought  to  know,  but 
they  will  not  show  him  what  he  can  do,  for  experi- 
ence alone  can  teach  him  this.  Any  soil  that  will 
grow  a  good  crop  of  potatoes  will,  with  proper 
manuring,  grow  good  violets.  This  means  that  the 
soil  should  be  moderately  heavy  loam,  that  it  should 
not  pack  or  puddle  readily,  and  that  it  should  con- 
tain plenty  of  fibrous  material,  which  can  be  ob- 
tained by  using  good  turf  or  sod. 

We  prefer  in  all  cases  to  use  good  sod  or  turf, 
cutting  this  not  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
thick.  Where  land  is  plentiful,  that  is,  where  the 
grower  has  several  acres  at  his  disposal,  it  will  be 
best  to  keep  part  of  it  constantly  in  grass.  Blue 
grass,  white  clover  and  redtop  make  a  good  mixture. 
For  every  bushel  of  blue  grass  seed  use  one  quart  of 
white  clover  and  one  third  bushel  of  redtop.  Coarse 
grasses,  like  orchard  grass  and  timothy,  should  be 
avoided,  as  the  stems  and  heavy  roots  are  sources 


HANDLING  4 1 

of  annoyance  in  handling  the  soil.  Where  one  has 
land  that  can  be  spared  he  should  allow  for  every 
thousand  plants  not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  an 
acre  in  grass  upon  which  he  can  depend  for  soil. 
The  soil,  after  being  used,  can  be  hauled  out,  and 
after  being  spread  on  the  ground  be  reseeded,  and 
in  six  or  eight  years  will  probably  be  as  good  as  new. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  necessary  to  purchase 
the  soil,  and  this  is  usually  done  through  contract- 
ors, and  sometimes  from  farmers  who  have  the  sod 
to  spare.  It  is  customary  to  pay  from  seventy-five 
cents  to  one  dollar  per  cubic  yard  for  good  sod  cut 
three  or  four  inches  thick  and  dehvered  on  the  place. 
A  cubic  yard  contains  twenty-seven  cubic  feet;  that 
is,  a  pile  one  foot  high,  three  feet  wide  and  nine  feet 
long.  More  often,  the  soil  is  bought  merely  by  the 
"load,"  a  load  being  usually  about  a  cubic  yard — 
sometimes  a  little  more,  sometimes  less.  Seventy- 
five  cents  to  one  dollar  per  load  is  the  price  usually 
paid  for  soil. 

Some  prefer  to  stack  the  soil,  that  is,  to  cut  it 
and  pile  it  in  a  heap  in  the  early  Fall;  but  this  is  not 
always  practicable;  hence  very  often  the  work  is 
left  till  Spring.  On  the  whole,  we  can  see  no  ad- 
vantage in  the  early  Fall  stacking,  unless  it  can  be 
done  during  a  time  when  work  is  not  pressing. 
Where  practicable,  our  preference  is  to  cut  the  sod 
in  the  Fall  and  allow  it  to  stand  in  the  field  unpiled 
until  it  has  been  frozen  hard  three  or  four  times. 


42  SOIL 

In  this  way  grubs,  nematodes,  and  the  larvae  of 
many  insects  are  killed,  and  at  the  same  time 
benefit  is  derived  from  the  effects  of  the  frost  on 
the  mechanical  and  chemical  condition  of  the 
soil.  Before  hard  Winter  weather  sets  in  the 
soil  should  be  either  hauled  close  to  the  greenhouse 
and  piled,  or  else  made  into  a  heap  where  it  stands. 
In  sections  where  the  soil  is  not  from  limestone 
formation,  fresh  slaked  hme  should  be  added  to 
it  when  it  is  being  put  into  the  heap,  or  directly 
after  cutting.  Lime  should  be  added  at  the  rate 
of  about  two-thirds  of  a  bushel  for  each  one  thou- 
sand square  feet  cut.  In  stacking  the  soil  we  pre- 
fer to  make  a  heap  about  four  feet  high,  twenty  to 
twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  of  any  length  desired. 
At  this  time  the  manure,  which  should  have  been 
previously  procured,  and  put  into  good  condition, 
is  to  be  added  to  the  soiL  As  a  rule,  one  part  of 
manure  to  four  parts  of  soil  will  make  a  combina- 
tion sufficiently  rich  for  any  purpose.  This  is 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the  manure  is  well  rotted 
and  free  from  hght  chaff  and  straw.  Well-rotted 
cow  manure  is  preferable,  if  it  can  be  obtained; 
but  if  not,  well-rotted  and  carefully  handled  horse 
manure  will  answer  equally  as  well.  Avoid  all 
experimenting  with  chemical  fertilizers.  They  are 
well  enough  in  their  place,  and  in  the  hands  of  one 
who  has  had  experience  no  harm  will  result  from 
the  use  of  a  little  pure,  ground,  undissolved  bone, 


MIXING 


43 


but  it  must  be  pure,  and  applied  at  the  rate  of  not 
more  than  one-half  bushel  for  each  one  thousand 
plants.     The  bone  should  be  mixed  with  the  soil 


7- — Mixing  soil.     Spreading  manure  in  layers  between  the  soil 


when  the  heap  is  being  made.  When  a  cart  and 
horse  are  at  hand  we  prefer  to  use  them  in  making 
the  heap.     Four  loads  of  soil,  each  a  cubic  yard. 


44 


SOIL 


are  hauled  and  spread,  and  then  a  load  of  manure 
is  added  and  spread  over  the  soil.  This  is  con- 
tinued until  the  first  layer  of  the  heap  is  of  the 


8. — Mixing  soil.    Breaking  and  pulverizing  the  sod  preparatory 
to  putting  it  down  with  layers  of  manure 

desired  width  and  length,  when  a  second  layer  is 
formed  in  the  same  way.  After  finishing  each  layer 
the  bone  meal  may  be  sown  thinly  over  the  sur- 


MIXING  45 

face.  Put  it  on  about  as  thick  as  is  done  in  sanding 
or  sawdusting  a  floor.  Working  in  this  way,  two 
active  men  can  put  into  a  heap  forty  to  fifty  yards 
of  soil  a  day,  or  a  sufficient  quantity  for  four  thou- 
sand to  five  thousand  plants,  figuring  that  the 
beds  contain  six  inches  of  fresh  made  soil,  and  that 
the  manure  and  turf  are  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
feet  apart.  It  is  seen,  therefore,  that  each  cubic 
yard  of  the  mixture  is  sufficient  for  one  hundred 
plants,  allowing  a  depth  of  six  inches  for  the  beds. 
When  soil  is  purchased,  or  even  when  it  is  ob- 
tained from  one's  own  place,  it  is  never  exactly 
alike  any  two  years.  For  this  reason  it  Is  a  good 
plan  to  experiment  a  httle  before  the  general  mix- 
ing is  commenced.  It  takes  very  little  time  to 
make  up  several  lots  of  soil  in  different  propor- 
tions, using  a  water  pail  to  make  the  measure- 
ments. For  instance,  we  have  soil  from  two  lo- 
cahties,  one  of  which  is  moderately  heavy  and  the 
other  light,  and  also  well-rotted  manure,  which 
we  make  up  in  the  following  combinations: 

(i)     Light  soil,  one  part. 

Heavy  soil,  three  parts. 
Manure,  one  part. 

(2)  Light  soil,  two  parts. 
Heavy  soil,  two  parts. 
Manure,  one  part, 

(3)  Light  soil,  two  parts. 
Heavy  soil,  three  parts. 
Manure,  one  part. 

(4)  Heavy  soil,  four  parts. 
Manure,  one  part. 


46  SOIL 

By  using  a  pail,  only  small  quantities  of  soil  and 
manure  are  needed,  but  there  will  be  sufficient  ma- 
terial in  each  case  after  a  thorough  mixing  to  tell 
what  the  combinations  look  and  feel  hke.  It  is  al- 
ways best  to  allow  the  heaps  to  stand  a  week  or  two, 
for  they  often  change  their  texture  on  standing, 
especially  when  lime  is  used.  With  a  httle  practice 
one  can  soon  determine  in  his  own  mind  what  com- 
binations suit  him  best,  and  then  he  will  at  least 
have  a  rational  basis  to  work  upon. 

Right  here  we  m.ay  utter  a  word  of  warning 
against  the  growing  practice  of  allowing  the  ex- 
perimenting mania  to  get  the  better  of  judgment. 
Some  individuals  are  over-inquiring,  and  for  this 
reason  the  temptation  is  to  experiment  continually, 
with  the  result  that  nothing  succeeds,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  one  thing  is  not  tried  long  enough 
to  find  out  its  real  value.  We  find  a  grower  trying 
first  this,  then  that  fertilizer  or  method,  with  the 
result  that  by  and  by  he  gives  up  in  disgust,  and 
says  that  his  soil  or  his  section  is  not  suited  to  the 
crop  he  is  attempting  to  grow.  If  he  could  only 
be  brought  to  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  the 
trouble  is  not  wholly  in  the  soil  or  surroundings, 
but  is  partly  in  himself,  he  would  soon  be  on  the 
road  to  success.  We  have  known  men  to  spend 
years  of  work  in  experimenting  one  way  or  another, 
and  at  the  end  of  that  time  they  would  be  little 
wiser  than  when  they  commenced.     All  this  time 


MIXING  47 

the  plants  have  been  doctored  with  insecticides  and 
fungicides,  fed  on  many  kinds  of  food,  and  in  short 
made  to  run  the  whole  gamut  of  crank  and  quack 
notions  advertised  from  time  to  time.  What  is 
needed  here  is  a  mind  cure  for  the  individual  and 
less  doctoring  for  the  plants.  Experiment,  of 
course,  but  do  not  be  led  away  by  it,  and  do  not 
allow  every  new  idea  or  suggestion  to  take  you  from 
the  m.ain  purpose  or  to  bias  your  judgment. 

To  return  from  our  digression,  the  soil,  when 
heaped,  should  be  protected  by  rough  boards  or  by 
some  other  means  from  rains.  Much  benefit  will 
result  if  the  soil  is  turned  two  or  three  times  before 
it  is  taken  into  the  houses.  Many  omit  this,  but 
we  are  convinced  that  it  pays  to  turn  it,  as  this  im- 
proves its  condition  in  many  ways.  The  cost  will 
not  exceed  fifty  cents  per  thousand  plants  for  each 
turning.  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  quantity 
of  soil  used,  but  it  is  desirable  to  enter  somewhat 
into  detail  upon  this  point.  We  aim  to  put  in  six 
inches  of  Jresh  soil  every  year.  Plants  may  do  well 
on  less  or  even  on  the  soil  that  has  been  used  once, 
but  the  grower  who  is  in  the  business  for  all  there  is 
to  be  made  out  of  it  cannot  afford  to  run  any  risks; 
hence  he  should  calculate  on  not  less  than  six  inches 
of  new  soil  each  year.  To  determine  then  how  much 
soil  is  necessary,  merely  multiply  the  length  of  each 
bed  in  feet  and  inches  by  the  width,  and  multiply 
this  by  one-half.    This  will  give  the  number  of  cubic 


48  SOIL 

feet,  and  as  there  are  twenty-seven  cubic  feet  in  a 
cubic  yard,  the  number  of  cubic  feet,  divided  by 
twenty-seven,  will  give  the  number  of  cubic  yards. 
For  example,  it  has  been  our  practice  to  have  our 
beds  numbered  (these  numbers  are  held  constant 
from  year  to  year)  as  follows: 

Bed  No,  I.  75  feet  x  6  feet=450  square  feet  x  3^  foot= 
225  cubic  feet,  or  practically  8  cubic  yards. 

Bed  No.  2.  125  feet  x  5  feet=62  5  square  feet  x  Yi  foot  = 
312  cubic  feet~27=  1 1.4  yards. 

All  the  beds  being  numbered  in  this  way  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  tell  just  how  much  soil  will  be  needed. 
Of  course  in  considering  the  bulk  as  a  whole  the 
manure  must  be  counted  in,  that  is,  if  a  total  of  one 
hundred  yards  of  prepared  soil  is  needed  the  manure 
will  form  one-fifth  of  this,  or  twenty  yards.  It 
will  be  necessary  therefore  to  purchase  eighty 
yards  of  soil  proper,  and  twenty  yards  of  manure 
for  the  mixture.  The  cost  of  manure  will,  of 
course,  depend  on  many  circumstances,  but  in  the 
vicinity  of  cities  it  can  seldom  be  bought  for  less 
than  seventy-five  cents  a  cubic  yard,  or  about  two 
dollars  and  a  half  for  a  two-horse  wagon  load. 

The  foregoing  statements  in  regard  to  soil, 
mixing,  etc.,  are  based  upon  the  supposition  that 
the  grower  is  near  a  city,  where  land  is  high,  and 
that  his  work  is  on  an  intensive  plan,  and  further, 
that  the  plants  are  grown  where  they  stand  and  not 
planted  in  the  field  and  then  moved  in.      No  man 


PROPER  SOIL  CONDITIONS  49 

who  is  in  the  business  to  compete  with  the  best  growers 
can  afford  to  run  the  risk  of  growing  his  plants  in 
the  field  and  moving  them  into  houses.  From  the 
time  the  cutting  is  made  until  the  old  plant  is 
thrown  away  the  work  is  or  should  be  entirely 
under  glass. 

Where  violet  farming  is  practiced,  i.  e.,  where 
land  is  plentiful  and  the  crop  is  grown  in  frames, 
it  is  customary  in  some  sections  merely  to  plow  up 
a  fresh  piece  of  sod  each  year  or  every  two  or  three 
years  and  move  the  frames.  We  do  not  recommend 
this  practice  and  beheve  that  it  pays  to  bring  the 
soil  into  heaps  and  mix  it  as  described  even  if  it  is 
to  be  used  in  frames.  The  more  the  soil  is  handled 
the  better,  providing  of  course  the  work  is  not  done 
when  there  is  too  much  moisture  present.  Never 
allow  a  shovel  to  touch  the  soil  when  the  latter  is 
wet,  for  irreparable  injury  can  be  done  at  such  a 
time.  Wait  until  the  soil  is  mealy  and  never  handle 
it  when  it  is  pasty  and  putty-like  to  the  touch.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  soil  is  not  a  dead,  inert 
mass,  but  is  an  exceedingly  complicated  material — 
an  active  working  laboratory,  teeming  with  life  and 
performing  functions  which  we  as  yet  understand 
imperfectly.  Fortunate  is  the  man  who  knows 
enough  to  appreciate  this  fact  and  to  let  the  soil 
alone  when,  by  so  doing,  its  wonderful  mechanism 
is  brought  into  play  for  the  best  use  of  the  plants 
it  sustains. 


50  HOUSES 


CHAPTER  III 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING  OF  HOUSES 
AND  FRAMES 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  HOUSES 

Probably  more  makeshifts  in  the  way  of  houses 
for  growing  violets  have  been  used  in  this  country 
than  for  any  other  crop.  The  evolution  of  this  part 
of  the  work  has  been  exceptionally  slow,  so  that  it 
is  difficult  to  find  at  this  time  a  thoroughly  modern 
establishment  in  every  way.  Ordinary  cold  frames 
were  first  used;  then  in  order  to  get  at  the  plants 
in  bad  weather  a  pit  was  made  so  as  to  obtain  head 
room  and  still  utihze  the  sashes  and  keep  the  plants 
near  the  glass.  Gradually  growers  began  to  get 
their  plants  above  ground  and  to  increase  the 
amount  of  head  room  and  air  space  by  raising  the 
sashes  above  the  beds.  Many  houses  are  still 
made  on  this  plan,  while  a  comparatively  few  are 
built  w^th  stationary  sash  bars  and  permanent 
glass  roof.  There  are  no  special  advantages  in 
making  a  house  of  sashes,  except  in  certain  cases, 
which  will  be  mentioned  later.  Such  houses  can- 
not be  made  wind-  or  water-tight,  and  as  a  rule  are 


52 


HOUSES 


SO  full  of  wood  as  to  be  unnecessarily  dark.     When 
it  was  considered  necessary  to  take  the  glass  off  in 


10. — House  twelve  feet  wide,  six  feet  to  ridge;  side  ventilators  oj 

glass.     This  is   one  of  a   block   oj  five   houses,   each 

seventy-five  feel  long 

Summer,  sashes,  of  course,  were  an  important  item, 
for  they  could  easily  be  removed  and  stored  until 
wanted   in   the   Fall.     If  one   intends   to   make   a 


54  HOUSES 

permanent  house  we  by  all  means  recommend  the 
fixed  roof,  with  ventilators  and  other  necessary 
adjuncts  arranged  as  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
describe. 

All  things  considered,  our  preference  is  for 
even-span  houses  running  north  and  south.  The 
violet  does  not  thrive  well  under  glaring  sunlight. 
It  needs  light,  but  this  should  be  softened  and  dif- 
fused in  order  to  insure  the  best  results  in  the  growth 
and  the  size  and  color  of  the  flowers.  The  three- 
quarter  span  house  facing  south  is  apt  to  be  too 
bright,  and  if  heavy  shading  is  resorted  to  it  is  ef- 
fective in  bright  weather,  but  makes  it  too  dark 
when  cloudy.  Economy  in  space  and  economy  in 
building,  furthermore,  can  be  attained  by  adopting 
the  even-span  north  and  south  style  of  house.  In 
our  work  we  have  made  it  a  point  to  keep  a  careful 
record  not  only  of  the  flowers  from  each  kind  of 
house,  but  from  each  bed  in  a  house.  These  records, 
kept  from  year  to  year,  furnish  interesting  informa- 
tion and  enable  one  who  is  looking  to  every  detail 
to  make  changes  that  will  result  to  his  advantage. 
The  three-quarter  span  house  facing  south,  in  our 
case  never  gave  as  many  flowers  per  square  foot 
of  bed  space,  by  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent.,  as 
the  even-span  houses  running  north  and  south. 

When  capital  and  space  are  limited  we  know 
of  no  better  style  of  house  than  a  narrow,  plain, 
even  span,  built  on  the  ridge  and  furrow  plan  (see 


S6 


HOUSES 


Fig.  2i),  and  running  north  and  soutli.  The  length 
maj^  be  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet. 


13. — Shed  at  north  end  of  houses,  showing  method  of  construction. 
Shed  has  glass  rooj 


Our  preference  is  for  houses  one  hundred  feet 
long,  twelve  feet  wide,  seven  feet  to  the  ridge  from 
the  bottom  of  the  walk,  and  two  feet  eight  inches 


CONSTRUCTION  ^J 

high  on  the  sides  above  ground  level  (see  Fig.  lo). 
Where  the  amount  of  ground  is  hmited  these  houses 
may  be  built  together — two,  three,  five,  or  seven,  as 
the  case  may  be — without  intervening  walls.    Ai,  the 


14. — Ini.erior  of  shed  shown  in  Figure  13.      Propagating  bench 

on  the  right,  supply  pipes  {two-inch)  07i  the  left,  siied 

eight  feet  wide 

north  end  of  the  houses  and  running  the  entire 
length  across  the  ends  there  should  be  a  lean-to  shed 
eight  feet  wide  and  provided  with  a  glass  roof  slop- 
ing to  the  north.     Against  the  north  wall  may  be 


58 


HOUSES 


placed  a  propagating  bed  three  and  one-half  feet 
wide,  leaving  four  and  one-half  feet  clear  space  for 
a  walk  and  entrance  to  each  house.     If  more  than 


15. — Roofs  oj  twelve-foot  houses,  showing  method  of  construction 

and  of  attaching  ventilators;  one  row  of  glass  between 

the  ventilators 

six  houses  are  in  the  block,  the  boiler  should  be 
placed  near  the  center  in  a  pit  dug  beneath  the 
shed.     If   necessary,    of   course,    the   entire   space 


CONSTRUCTION  59 

beneath  the  shed  may  be  devoted  to  coal,  a  work- 
shop, and  perhaps  a  place  for  tools.  If  the  number 
of  houses  is  three  or  less,  the  boiler  may  be  placed 
at  one  end  of  the  shed  in  a  pit,  as  already  described. 
The  end  selected  should  depend  upon  the  general 
slope  of  the  land,  the  object  being  to  get  the  boiler 
at  the  lowest  point.  Following  is  a  detailed  state- 
ment in  regard  to  the  points  to  consider  in  this  type 
of  house: 

Length,  one  hundred  feet,  with  one  foot  fall  to  carry 
off  water. 

Inside  width,  twelve  feet. 

Height  to  ridge  from  bottom  of  walk,  seven  feet. 

Height  of  side  from  top  of  plate  to  bottom  of  gutter, 
twenty  inches  (see  Figure  27). 

Walls  below  plates  to  be  boarded  up  with  rough  lum- 
ber first,  then  covered  with  rustic  siding  (see  Figure  27). 
Number  of  walks,  one  in  each  house,  placed  in  the  center. 
Width  of  walk,  fourteen  inches. 
Depth  of  walk,  twelve  inches. 
Number  of  beds,  two. 
Width  of  each  bed,  five  feet  five  inches. 
Depth  of  beds,  twelve  inches. 

Posts  in  outside  walls,  four  by  four  inches  sawed  cedar, 
chestnut,  or  locust,  set  four  feet  apart  center  to  cen- 
ter, and  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  ground. 

Posts  in  inside  walls,  four  by  four  inches,  set  eight  feet 
apart  center  to  center,  and  two  and  one-half  feet  in 
the  ground. 

Gutters,  three  piece,  six  inches  in  the  clear,  made  of  two- 
inch  clear  cypress  (see  Figure  21). 

Wall  plates,  two  by  eight  inch  clear  cypress,  to  be  notched 
around  posts. 


6o  HOUSES 

Gable  plates  for  end  of  each  house,  two  by  eight  inch  clear 

cypress. 
Gable  rafters,  one  and  three-quarters  by  two  and  one- 
quarter  inch  clear  cypress. 
Sash   bars,   clear  cypress,   one  and   one-quarter   by   two 

and   one-half  inches,    with    drip    groove,    all    bars    to 

extend  from  gutter  to  ridge. 
Rafters,  two  by  four  inch,  clear  cypress,  to  be  set  every 

sixteen  feet.     Rafters  to  take  place  of  sash  bar. 
Ridge  (with  ridge  cap),  two  by  six  inches. 
Top  ventilators,  two  by  four  feet,  or  made  to  cover  three 

rows  of  glass  set  fifteen  inches,   including  sash  bars. 

One  row  of  glass  to  be  left  between  the  ventilators. 
Headers  to  be  placed  under  ventilator. 
Ventilators  on  side,  two  by  four  feet,  continuous,  and  to 

lap  on  post  one-half. 
Glass  ten  by  fifteen  inches,  double  thick,  second  quality, 

lapped  and  bedded  in  putty.     Glass  set  fifteen  inch 

way. 
South  ends  of  houses  glass,  with  exception  of  door,  which 

should  be  four  feet  wide  so  as  to  admit  a  wheelbarrow 

readily. 
North  ends  of  houses  opening  into  shed  to  be  made  of 

tongue  and  groove  jDine,  with  doors  the  same  size  as 

those  on  south  end. 

Walls  of  shed  to  be  made  of  rustic  siding  nailed  to  two  by 
four  studs  set  eighteen  inches  apart.  Inside  of  shed 
to  be  lined  with  tongue  and  groove  yellow  pine. 

Wall  plate  of  shed,  two  by  six  yellow  pine. 

Top  plate  of  shed,  same  as  wall  plate. 

Doors   in   north   wall   of  shed,    four   feet   wide,    opening 

opposite  doors  in  north  end  of  houses. 
Posts  for  sides  of  beds,  two  by  four  hemlock,  set  four 

feet  apart,  and  wired  to  opposite  posts  or  to  stakes  to 

prevent  spreading.     Set  wires  ten  inches  below  top  of 

bed. 
Sides  of  bed,  one  by  twelve  inch  hemlock  boards  nailed 

to  outside  of  the  two  by  four  posts. 


CONSTRUCTION 


6l 


Heating  pipes,  black  wrought  iron  screw  joints,  two 
one  and  one-half  inch  flows  for  each  house  and  ten 
one  and  one-quarter  inch   returns  (five  on  each  side 


i6, — A  twelve-fool  house,  sbowiiig  meibod  0/  constructing  and 
attaching  side   ventilators 

of  house).     Pipes  run  so  that  the  highest  point,  in- 
cluding expansion  tank,  is  directly  over  the  boiler. 
Flow  and  returns  in  all  houses  to  have  the  same  ftill, 
i.  e.,  about  one  inch  for  every  ten  feet  of  pipe. 


62  HOUSES 

To  feed  five  houses  of  the  size  here  given  (twelve  by 
one  hundred  feet),  it  will  be  necessary  to  run  out 
two  two  and  one-half  inch  pipes  from  the  boiler, 
allowing  one  pipe  to  feed  the  two  houses  on  the  west 
and  one  to  feed  the  three  on  the  east.  The  west  is  given 
the  advantage  on  account  of  the  greater  exposure. 

Top  ventilators  operated  by  plain  lifting  rods  with  holes 
and  pins  to  give  a  four  to  sixteen  inch  opening. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  will  make  plain 
the  points  mentioned. 

The  second  type  of  house,  which  will  require 

more  ground  and  capital,  is  also  even-span,  running 

north  and  south,  but  with  a  space  of  eight  feet 

between  the  houses.     Following  are  the  principal 

features  of  this  style  of  house: 

Length  of  house,  one  hundred  feet,  with  one  foot  fall 
to  carry  off  water. 

Width  of  shed  at  north  end,  ten  feet. 
Width  of  house  inside,  twenty-four  feet. 

Height  of  walls  from  top  of  plate  to  bottom  of  gutter, 
twenty  inches.  Plate  to  be  twelve  inches  above 
grade  (see  Figure  27). 

Walls  below  plate  to  be  boarded  up  with  rough  lumber 
and  then  covered  with  rustic  siding  (see  Figure  27). 

Height  of  house  inside  from  top  of  center  bed  to  bot- 
tom of  ridge,  nine  feet. 

Number  of  walks,  two. 

Width  of  walks,  each  fourteen  inches. 

Number  of  beds,  three. 

Width  of  center  bed,  ten  feet  ten  inches. 

Width  of  side  beds,  each  five  feet  five  inches. 

Depth  of  beds,  twelve  inches. 

Posts  in  side  walls,  sawed  cedar,  chestnut,  or  locust, 
four  by  four  inches,  set  four  feet  apart  center  to 
center  and  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  ground. 


CONSTRUCTION  63 

Gutters,  three  piece  cypress,  six  inches  in  the  clear  (see 
Figure  21). 

Plates,  two  by  eight  inches,  clear  cypress,  cut  to  fit  around 
posts  and  to  receive  bottom  of  ventilator. 

Gable  plates  at  ends  of  house,  two  by  eight  inches  clear 
cypress. 

Gable  rafters,  one  and  three-quarters  by  two  and  one- 
quarter  inches  clear  cypress. 

Purlins,  one  inch  black  pipe,  run  under  each  slope  five 
feet  nine  inches  from  ridge. 

Supports  for  purlins,  one  inch  pipe,  long  enough  to  extend 
through  bed  and  into  cement  block  in  the  ground. 

Support  for  ridge,  one  and  one-quarter  inch  black  pipe, 
placed  eight  feet  apart  and  set  the  same  as  supports 
under  purlins. 

Iron  posts,  to  be  attached  to  purlins  by  T's  one  and 
one-quarter  inch  through,  so  as  to  slip  over  pur- 
lin pipe,  with  one  inch  side  to  take  support. 

Sash  bars,  clear  cypress,  one  and  one-quarter  by  two 
and  one-half  inches,  with  drip  groove,  all  bars  to 
extend  from  gutter  to  ridge. 

Rafters,  none. 

Ridge,  clear  cypress,  two  by  six  inches,  with  ridge  cap. 

Top  ventilators  on  both  sides,  each  ventilator  two  by 
four  feet,  or  long  enough  to  cover  three  sash  bars 
and  glass,  leaving  one  row  of  glass  between  each 
two  ventilators,  headers  under  ventilators. 

Ventilators  on  sides,  two  by  four  feet,  continuous,  and 
made  to  lap  on  posts. 

Ventilator-raising  apparatus  for  top  and  sides  consisting 
of  geared  wheels,  shaft,  arms,  and  rods. 

Glass,  ten  by  fifteen  inches,  double  thick,  second  quality, 
lapped,  and  bedded  in  putty.  Glass  set  fifteen  inch 
way. 

Posts  for  supporting  sides  of  beds,  two  by  four  inch  hem- 
lock, set  four  feet  apart  and  wired  to  opposite  posts  to 
prevent  bed  from  spreading. 

Sides  of  beds,  one  inch  hemlock  or  cypress,  nailed  to 
outside  of  posts. 


64  HOUSES 

Heating  pipes,  black  wrought  iron  and  screw  joint,  to  be 
run  so  that  the  highest  point  is  directly  over  the 
boiler. 

Flow  pipe,  two  and  one-half  inches,  to  be  carried  directly 
under  the  ridge  and  to  fall  to  south  end  about  one 
inch  in  every  ten  feet. 

Returns,  twelve  one  and  one-half  inch  pipes,  to  fall  one 
inch  in  ten  feet  from  south  to  north  end,  two  pipes 
to  be  carried  over  center  bed  and  five  along  each  wall. 
This  will  give  sufficient  radiating  surface  to  maintain 
with  hot  water  an  inside  temperature  of  fifty  degrees 
F.  with  an  outside  temperature  at  zero  and  no  wind 
blowing.  Plugged  openings  should  be  left  for  at 
least  four  additional  returns  so  as  to  be  on  the  safe 
side.  This  can  be  done  with  very  little  additional  ex- 
pense and  may  be  worth  a  good  many  dollars  at  some 
future  time. 

As  many  houses  as  may  be  desired  can  be  built  after 
this  plan,  all  connecting  at  the  north  end  with  the 
shed  having  a  slope  running  to  the  north,  the  same 
as  described  for  the  first  style  of  house.  It  is  best 
to  leave  at  least  eight  feet  between  each  two  houses 
to  facilitate  ventilation,  the  taking  out  of  plants 
and  soil,  clearing  off  the  snow  from  the  roofs,  and 
other  necessary  work. 


HEATING 

So  much  for  the  main  points  involved  in  the 
construction  of  the  two  principal  styles  of  houses. 
In  the  matter  of  heating  we  have  considered  only 
hot  water,  as  we  believe  it  has  advantages  over 
steam  in  growing  violets.  A  proper  boiler  is  of  the 
utmost  importance — so  important,  in  fact,  that  the 
most  careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  its 
selection.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  writ- 
ten on  heating  it  is  a  fact  that  nearly  every  man  who 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING 


6s 


goes  into  greenhouse  work  is  dissatisfied  until  he  has 
spent  a  good  deal  oj  money  and  time  in  experimenting 
on  this  feature.  Experience  obtained  in  this  way 
is  sometimes  dearly  bought  and  it  pays  better  to 
take  the  advice  of  others  who  have  gone  over  the 


17. — Fastening     pipes     to 
posts  by  tin  clips 


18. — Fastening     pipes     to 
posts  by  bent-wire  nails 


same  ground   and  have  reached  conclusions  that 
will  apply  to  your  case. 

Boiler  makers,  under  the  stimulus  of  competi- 
tion, have  in  many  cases  wandered  away  from  the 
simple  principles  that  must  be  considered  in  making 
an  economical,  efficient  apparatus.  In  our  experi- 
ence w^ith  boilers  we  have  never  found  any  that 
would  fill  all  requirements  so  nearly  as  one  of  sim- 


66 


HOUSES 


pie  construction,  giving  the  largest  possible  amount 
of  direct  heating  surface,  and  offering  the  least  re- 
sistance to  the  movement  of  the  water,  and  a  fire  box 


19. — Interior    of   twelve-Jout    bouse,    sboiving    method    of    con- 
structing south  end  and  door 

deep  and  big  enough  to  carry  a  large  amount  of 
fuel  at  slow  combustion. 

There  is  no  economy  in  curtaihng  the  size  of 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING 


67 


the  fire  box  and  adding  sections,  which  at  best  can 
only  receive  the  hot  gases.  In  order  to  get  the 
full  service  out  of  such  a  boiler  it  will  be  necessarv 


20. — Interior  oj  house,  shoiving  method  of  coririecting  flow  pipe 
with  four  returns 

to  carry^aiiot  fire,  and  as  a  result  a  large  percentage 
of  thejheatfgoes  up  the  chimney.  Boilers,  there- 
fore, should  be  selected  with  due  regard  to  (i)  the 


68 


HOUSES 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING 


69 


amount  of  direct  heating  surface,  (2)  perpendicular 
circulation  of  the  water  in  the  boiler,  (3)  the  ca- 
pacity for  fuel,  and  (4)  conveniences  in  the  matter  of 


\ 

^%f^\^^^PP 

ftppl 

„  **i    ■'■■■■ 

22. — Interior   cojistruction.     Method  of  connecting   returns   of 
hot  water  pipes  at  north  end  of  house 

suitable  grates,  drafts,  and  doors.  Most  boilers  are 
rated  on  the  number  of  square  feet  of  pipe  they 
will  heat.     As  a  rule,  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING  Jl 

margin  should  be  allowed  on  these  figures  in  order 
to  be  on  the  safe  side.  For  example,  if  a  boiler  is 
rated  to  heat  one  thousand  square  feet  of  pipe  it 
should  not  have  more  than  seven  hundred  or  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  put  upon  it.  It  may  heat  the 
thousand  feet  at  a  pinch,  but  the  grower  wants  it  to 
heat  the  pipe  at  all  times  with  a  slow  fire  that  will 
stand  without  attention  at  least  six  or  seven  hours. 
The  saddle,  conical,  and  locomotive  types  of 
boilers  are  probably  as  efficient  as  any  we  now  have, 
and  by  taking  any  one  of  these  and  fitting  it  up 
with  the  modern  improvements  in  the  way  of  deep 
fire  box,  grates,  ash-pit,  door  and  flue  drafts,  and 
dampers,  it  would,  in  all  probability,  do  the  work 
more  economically  and  efficiently  than  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  intricate  forms  now  on  the  market.  There 
is  the  keenest  competition  am.ong  boiler  makers,  and 
as  a  rule,  they  are  to  be  commended  for  the  great 
energy  they  show  in  endeavoring  to  adapt  their 
apparatus  to  the  demands  of  the  trade.  Prices  are 
so  close  that  every  additional  ounce  of  iron  counts, 
and  for  this  reason  it  would  seem  to  be  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  simplify  construction  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. It  is  a  matter  of  theoretical  calculation  to 
determine  what  each  section  will  do  when  added 
to  a  boiler.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  frequently 
found  that  each  section  beyond  reach  of  direct  fire 
contact  utterly  fails  to  do  what  in  theory  it  ought 
to  accomplish.     Good  boilers  made  by  responsible 


72 


HOUSES 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  HEATING 


73 


firms  are  within  the  reach  of  all  nowadays  and  it 
hardly  pays,  therefore,  to  attempt  to  make  them 
out  of  coils  of  pipe.     By  the  time  the  pipe  is  pur- 


25. — House  twenty-Jour  feet  wide;  posts  set  and  shed  at  north 
end  built  first 

chased,  put  together,  and  bricked  up,  and  the  doors, 
grates,  drafts,  and  other  necessary  conveniences  ob- 
tained, the  cost  is  nearly  as  great  as  when  a  first- 


74 


HOUSES 


class  boiler,  ready  to  set  up  and  start  off,  is  pur- 
chased. 

As  to  the  cost  of  boilers,  it  may  be  said  that 


26.— Constructing    house    twenty-Jour  feet    wide;    second   step, 
making  beds  and  walks 

for  every  five  hundred  square  feet  of  pipe  it  will 
cost  at  least  seventy-five  dollars  for  boiler  capacity 
to  heat   it,   or  roughly,   fifteen    dollars    for    every 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   HEATING  75 

hundred  square  feet  of  heating  surface.  There- 
fore, to  heat  a  house  such  as  described,  namely, 
twelve  by  one  hundred  feet  and  seven  feet  to  ridge. 


27. — Constructing  house  twenty-Jour  feet  wide;  third  step,  run- 
ning gutters  and  notching  plate  around  posts 

the  boiler  would  cost  seventy-five  to  one  hundred 
dollars.  For  each  additional  house  of  the  same 
length  joined  to  the  next,  without  partition  walls. 


76  HOUSES 

an  additional  fifty-five  dollars  should  be  added  for 
boiler  capacity.  To  heat  a  house  one  hundred  feet 
long  and  twenty-four  feet  wide,  such  as  described 
as  the  second  type,  would  require  a  boiler  costing 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  at  the  least. 
For  each  additional  house  separated  from  the  other 
by  an  alley  of  eight  feet,  it  would  require  seventy- 
five  dollars  additional  for  boiler  capacity.  When 
the  amount  of  pipe  to  heat  exceeds  twenty-five 
hundred  square  feet  it  is  best  to  have  more  than  one 
boiler — in  fact,  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  not  best 
in  all  cases  to  have  boilers  so  arranged  that  there  is 
a  reserve  on  hand  for  emergencies,  which  may  arise 
at  any  time.  It  is  also  a  question  as  to  whether 
it  would  not  pay  to  have  a  night  fireman  in  all  cases 
where  the  number  of  plants  exceeds  ten  thousand 
or  thereabout. 

This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  the  total 
cost  of  houses  similar  in  type  in  most  of  the  details 
to  those  described.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
from  a  business  point  of  view,  to  consider  every 
factor  carefully,  making  provision  also  for  future 
extensions  if  need  be. 

The  following  estimates  were  supphed  by  the 
courtesy  of  the  John  C.  Moninger  Co.,  Chicago,  and 
are  based  upon  the  length  and  width  of  houses  as 
stated.  Those  who  contemplate  building  would, 
of  course,  make  application  to  greenhouse  builders 
for  a  definite  estimate  before  starting  operations. 


CONSTRUCTION  77 

SEMI-IRON  CONSTRUCTION 
Material  for   the  construction   of   one  greenhouse* 
24  ft.  X  100  ft.,  2  glass  gables,  1  single  door,  16  in.  Glass, 
lapped,  3  ft.  6  in.  walls. 

LIST  OF  WOODWORK 

2  runs  lOO  ft.,  gutter $52.50 

I  run  100 ft ridge  and  cap.  ...  8.58 

21  lineal  ft glass  sill   for  one 

end 1 .07 

200  lineal  ft sash  sill 9.08 

200  lineal  ft sash  hanging  rail. .  5.82 

1  single  sash  door  and  frame 6.50 

75  lineal  ft gable  end  bars 2.40 

4  pes.  14  ft gable  rafters 2.88 

144  pes.  14  ft roof  sash  bars.  ...  51.26 

24  ventilators 23.60 

24  seat  strips,  48  weather  strips 9.40 

4  corner  casings i  .60 

2  runs  side  sash  100  ft 28.20 

42  sash  dividing  strips 3-^9 

VENTILATOR  LIFTER,  FOR  ROOF  VENTS 

2  complete  machines 24.00 

48  complete  lifters 1 2.00 

38  hangers 3-8o 

200  ft.  shafting 14.00 

HINGES  FOR  ROOF  VENTS 

36  prs.  hinges  for  roof  vents 4.32 

44  prs.  hinges  for  side  sashes 5.28 

HARDWARE  FOR  DOORS 

iH  prs.  hinges j.  ^ 

I  set  latches \ ^ 

NAILS 

All  necessary  galvanized  nails,  not  including  benches.  .  .  4.00 


yS  HOUSES 


GLASS 

68  bxs.  1 6  in.  X  i8  in.  D.  S.  A.  hand  made  glass $224.40 

PUTTY 

300  lbs.  strictly  pure  greenhouse  putty 10.50 

GLAZING  POINTS 

7  lbs.  galv.  glazing  points 91 

WOOD  POSTS  FOR   GABLE   ENDS  AND   POST   BLOCKING  FOR 
WALLS 

4  pes.  4  in.  X  4  in.  x  5  ft.  cypress  posts,  rough i.oo 

40  pes.  4  in.  X  4  in.  x  7  ft.  cypress  posts,  rough 14.00 

PURLINS,   FITTINGS  AND   PURLIN   SUPPORTS   SPACED  9   FT. 

2  runs  100  ft.,  galv.  pipe  purlin 12.00 

20  pes.  galv.  pipe  cut  7  ft.  6  in.  pinned 6.00 

20  sets  galv.  steel  tees  pinned 2.40 

4  purlin  end  bearers 40 

144  pes.  galv.  pipe  strap i  .80 

SHEATHING 

400  ft.  I  in.  X  8  in.  D.  &  M.  cypress 14.40 

400  ft.  I  in.  X  6  in.  cypress  drop  siding 14.40 

I  roll  parchment  paper 1.75 

PAINT   MATERIALS 

12  gals,  paint  for  two-coat  work.  .  | 

3  gals,  boiled  linseed  oil |- 27.00 

1  gal.  turpentine \ 

VENTILATOR    LIFTER 

(For  Side  Sash) 

2  complete  machines 24.00 

44  complete  lifters 11 .00 

40  hangers • 4.00 

200  ft.  shafting 14.00 


CONSTRUCTION  79 

PECKY    CYPRESS    BEDS 

600  ft.  I  in.  X  12  in.  side  pieces  in  4  ft.  multiples $1  5.00 

1 56  pes.  2  in.  X  4  in.  x  2  ft.  stakes 5  5-20 

All  woodwork,  unless  otherwise  specified,  made  of  clear,  air- 
dried,  Louisiana  red  cypress,  guaranteed  free  from  sap  or 
defects  and  smoothly  machined.  All  material  cut  to  fit  as  far 
as  possible  at  factory  and  furnished  ready  to  set  in  place  to- 
gether with  complete  plans. 

No  material  for  boiler  shed  is  included,  as  this  cost 
can  be  best  ascertained  by  the  local  carpenter.  The  erection 
complete,  including  the  installation  of  the  heating  system, 
will  cost  about  S230. 


Material  for  the  construction  of  one  greenhouse 
12  ft.  X  100  ft.,  1  glass  gable,  1  single  door,  16  in.  glass, 
lapped,  3  ft.  6  in.  walls. 


CONSTRUCTION  MATERIAL 

2  runs  100  ft gutter $52.50 

I  run  100  ft ridge 5.77 

9  lineal  ft glass  sill  for  sides 

and  ends 40 

200  lineal  ft sash  sill 9.08 

200  lineal  ft sash  hanging  rail.      5.82 

1  single  sash  door  and  frame 6. 50 

25  lineal  ft gable  end  bars 78 

144  pes.  7  ft roof  sash  bars.  .  .  .    27.07 

1 2  ventilators 11 ,80 

12  seat  strips 5.90 

4  corner  casings 1.60 

2  runs  side  sash 28.20 

42  sash  dividing  strips 3.19 

4  pes.  7  ft gable  rafters 1.48 


VENFILATOR  LIFTER    FOR    ROOF    VENTS 

I  complete  machine 12.00 

24  complete  lifters 6.00 

19  hangers . i  .90 

100  ft.  shafting 7.00 


80  HOUSES 


HINGES    FOR    ROOF    VENTS 

i8  prs.  hinges  for  roof  vents $2.i6 

44  prs.  hinges  for  side  sash 5.28 

NAILS 

All  necessary  galv.  nails,  not  including  benches 4.00 

GLASS 

36  bxs.  16  in.  X  18  in.  D.  S.  A.  hand  made  glass 1 18.80 

PUTTY 

1  50  lbs.  strictly  pure  greenhouse  putty 5.25 

GLAZING  POINTS 

4  lbs.  galv.  glazing  points 60 

WOOD  POSTS  FOR   GABLE   ENDS  AND  WALLS 

2  pes.  4  in.  X  4  in.  x  5  ft.  cypress  posts,  rough 50 

40  pes.  4  in.  X  4  in.  x  7  ft.  cypress  posts,  rough 14.00 

SHEATHING 

375  ft.  cypress,  i  in.  x  8  in.,  D.  &  M 13.50 

375  ft.  cypress  drop  siding,  i  in.  x  6  in 13-50 

1  roll  parchment  paper i  .75 

PAINT    MATERIAL 

7  gals,  paint  for  two-coat  work. .  .  ) 

2  gals,  boiled  linseed  oil V 17.00 

1  gal.  turpentine ) 

VENTILATOR    LIFTER 

(For  Side  Sash) 

2  complete  machines 24.00 

44  complete  lifters ,  11 .00 

40  hangers 4.00 

200  ft.  shafting 14.00 


CONSTRUCTION 


PECKY  CYPRESS    BEDS 


8i 


2  beds,  4  ft.  6  in.  x  lOO  ft.,  i  ft.  high. 

200  ft.  I  in.  X  12  in.  sides  rough,  in  4  ft.  multiples $5.00 

52  pes.  2  in.  X  4  in.  x  2  ft.  stakes i-75 

All  woodwork,  unless  otherwise  specified,  made  of  clear, 
air-dried,  Louisiana  red  cypress,  guaranteed  free  from  sap 
or  defects  and  smoothly  machined.  All  material  cut  to  fit  as 
far  as  possible  at  the  factory  and  furnished  ready  to  set  in 
place,  together  with  complete  plans. 

No  material  for  shed  included,  as  this  cost  can  be 
best  ascertained  by  local  carpenter.  The  complete  cost  of 
erection  for  this  house,  including  installation  of  heating  sys- 
tem, will  be  about  Si  50. 

We  have  already  referred  to  houses  made  of 
sashes.  For  certain  purposes,  houses  of  this  kind 
will  be  found  very  useful,  and  it  is  important, 
therefore,  to  have  sashes  on  hand.  Sash  houses 
can  be  erected  quickly  and  can  be  taken  down  when 
necessary  and  the  sashes  themselves  stored.  A 
sash  house  is  particularly  valuable  for  wintering 
cuttings  and  taking  care  of  them  when  made  in 
Spring.  Furthermore,  a  house  of  this  kind  will 
be  found  very  useful  for  growing  reserve  plants 
during  the  Summer.  It  is  always  important  to 
have  on  hand  a  supply  of  good  plants  to  transplant 
where  others  are  lost  from  the  main  houses.  A 
sash  house,  constructed  with  open  sides  and  ends, 
can  be  used  for  growing  plants,  and  the  latter  will 
in  such  cases  do  much  better  than  when  grown  in 
frames  or  in  the  open  air.     In  the  Spring,  more- 


82    ,  HOUSES 

over,  when  the  main  houses  become  crowded  with 
boxes  of  cuttings,  the  sash  house  will  be  found 
exceedingly  valuable  for  storing  the  flats  of  young 
plants.  In  such  cases  comparatively  httle  heat  is 
required  owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  season.  The 
young  plants  are  at  all  times  within  reach,  so  that 
they  can  be  kept  clean  and  fumigated  with  gas  if 
it  is  found  necessary  to  do  so. 

For  houses  of  this  character,  sashes  of  a  size 
3  ft.  by  6  ft.  are  advantageous.  Such  sashes  made 
of  white  pine  or  cypress  can  be  bought  complete, 
that  is,  glazed  and  with  two  coats  of  paint,  for 
two  to  three  dollars  each.  The  woodwork  neces- 
sary for  the  construction  of  such  a  house  would 
cost  comparatively  little.  Ordinarily,  in  con- 
structing a  house  of  this  kind  two  beds  are  first 
made,  with  a  walk  fourteen  inches  wide  between 
them.  These  beds  are  made  of  twelve-inch  Hem- 
lock boards,  which  are  nailed  to  two-  by  three-inch 
Hemlock  posts  set  four  feet  apart.  In  order  to 
keep  the  boards  in  place  the  Hemlock  posts  are 
driven  six  to  eight  inches  in  the  ground  and  then 
wired  to  opposite  posts  or  to  sticks  driven  down 
for  the  purpose.  The  total  width  of  such  a  house 
should  be  ten  feet,  including  the  path.  The  path 
being  fourteen  inches  wide,  there  is  left  on  each 
side  a  bed  four  feet  five  inches  wide.  To  support 
the  sashes,  uprights,  made  of  two  by  four  Hemlock 
studs,  are  nailed  to  the  outside  boards  of  the  frame. 


84  FRAMES 

These  uprights  are  placed  about  six  feet  apart  and 
should  project  two  feet  above  the  frame.  After 
being  set  in  this  way  and  nailed  to  the  boards,  the 
tops  should  be  sawed  at  the  same  slant  or  pitch  the 
roof  is  to  have.  A  two  by  three  stud  is  then  nailed 
to  the  tops  of  the  posts  for  a  plate  and  upon  this  the 
ends  of  the  sash  are  allowed  to  rest.  The  sashes 
are  simply  brought  together  at  the  top  and  nailed, 
no  ridge  being  required.  They  are  also  nailed  at 
the  bottom  and  no  further  support  is  necessary. 

Where  the  house  is  intended  for  late  Spring  and 
Summer  use  it  is  of  course  not  necessary  to  provide 
for  ventilation,  as  plenty  of  air  is  always  circulat- 
ing through  the  sides  and  ends,  which  are  left  open. 
For  cuttings  in  the  Spring,  however,  where  some 
heat  is  necessary,  the  sides  and  ends  must  be  closed 
up.  This  can  be  done  by  means  of  rough  pine  or 
Hemlock  boards,  over  which  may  be  nailed,  on  the 
outside,  tarred  paper.  The  ends  may  be  closed  in 
the  same  way,  leaving  a  door  at  one  end  for  en- 
trance. In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  effect  ven- 
tilation to  loosen  about  every  third  sash  and  hinge 
it  at  the  top.  Pieces  of  leather  can  be  used  for  the 
hinges  and  each  sash  may  be  raised  and  propped 
with  a  stick.  A  house  of  this  kind,  sixty  feet  long, 
should  have  on  each  side  four  movable  sashes  for 
ventilating.  The  ventilating  sashes  should  not 
come  opposite  each  other,  otherwise  they  cannot  be 
hinged  at  the  top. 


86  FRAMES 

In  order  to  heat  a  house  of  this  kind  for  Spring 
use,  run  two  one  and  one-quarter  inch  pipes  down 
each  side,  to  be  fed  by  a  one  and  one-half  inch  flow 
running  under  the  ridge  or  down  the  sashes  so  as  to 
get  the  proper  fall.  Such  a  house  may  be  used 
for  growing  the  violets  through  the  season  and  is 
one  of  the  most  inexpensive  that  could  be  erected. 
In  such  a  case,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to  run 
at  least  four  one  and  one-quarter  inch  pipes  down 
each  side,  the  same  to  be  fed  by  two  one  and  one- 
half  inch  flows. 

Such  a  house  for  Spring  use  sixty  feet  in  length, 
would  cost  approximately  as  follows: 

40  sashes,  3x6  feet,  at  $3.00  each $120.00 

Lumber  for  sides,  ends,  and  beds 23.00 

Nails,  hardware,  etc 2.00 

Heating  pipes  and  heating  apparatus 5  5-00 

Total $200.00 

As  will  be  seen,  this  is  a  very  cheap  house,  and 
will  hold  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  cuttings  placed 
in  flats.  If  planted  in  the  ordinary  way,  i.e.,  eight 
by  nine  inches,  it  will  hold  about  one  thousand 
plants.  For  Summer  use  alone,  that  is,  without 
heating  apparatus,  sides,  or  ends,  the  house  can  be 
erected  for  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty 
dollars.  For  growing  plants  in  order  to  get  flowers 
throughout  the  Winter  the  cost  will  be  fully  two 
hundred  dollars,  on  account  of  the  extra  heating 
pipe  needed. 


88  FRAMES 

If  a  shorter  house  than  the  one  here  described 
is  wanted  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  build 
it.  A  house  thirty  feet  long  would  cost  little  more 
than  half  as  much,  so  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are 
a  number  of  advantages  in  having  sashes  for  use  in 
this  way. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    FRAMES 

The  simplest  form  of  structure  for  growing 
violets  is  the  frame,  which  may  be  either  cold  or 
heated.  Frames  should  be  located  on  ground  that 
is  well  drained,  and  if  possible  should  have  some 
protection  from  north  winds.  It  is  customary  to 
place  them,  when  practicable,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
but  if  this  cannot  be  done  it  is  desirable  to  have 
them  on  the  windward  side  of  trees  or  some  similar 
place  where  the  north  wind  will  not  sweep  over 
them. 

For  violets  the  frames  are  ordinarily  made  on 
top  of  the  ground,  that  is,  it  is  best  not  to  dig  the 
ground  out,  for  the  reason  that  water  is  apt  to 
accumulate  around  the  roots,  and  the  plants,  in 
consequence,  will  suffer.  Rough  pine  boards  are 
used  for  constructing  the  frames.  The  back  of  the 
frame  is  usually  made  of  a  board  twelve  inches  wide, 
while  for  the  front  a  board  eight  inches  wide  is 
required.  Frames  always  face  the  south,  that  is, 
they  run  east  and  west.  The  frames  may  be  made 
either  continuous  or  in  sections.     When  continu- 


90  FRAMES 

ous,  posts  are  driven  into  the  ground  and  boards 
are  nailed  to  tliem,  so  that  the  frame  is  just  wide 
enough  to  take  a  sash  six  feet  long.  The  length 
may  be  indefinite  and  will  vary  according  to  the 
surroundings  and  nature  of  the  land.  Ordinarily 
it  is  preferable  to  have  several  lengths  of  frames 
separated  by  six  or  eight  feet  rather  than  to  have 
one  long  tier.  After  the  boards  have  been  erected 
they  should  be  braced  every  six  feet  by  a  one-inch 
by  three-inch  strip  sunk  and  nailed  into  the  back 
and  front  boards  level  with  the  edge  of  each. 
Frames  so  constructed  will  cost  about  eighty  to 
eighty-five  or  ninety  cents  per  running  foot.  This 
is  without  mats  or  shutters  for  protecting  the 
plants   in   very   cold   w^eather. 

Mats  may  be  made  of  straw  or  burlaps,  and 
shutters  may  be  constructed  of  wood,  or  if  not 
made  into  the  size  of  the  sashes  themselves,  ordinary 
twelve-foot  boards  can  be  used.  For  burlap  mats 
or  boards  the  additional  cost  of  the  frame  will  be 
twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  per  running  foot,  which 
makes  the  total  cost  li.io  to  $1.15  per  foot. 
Therefore  a  frame  one  hundred  feet  long,  con- 
structed as  described,  with  mats  or  boards  for 
covering  in  cold  weather,  will  cost  approximately 
one  hundred  and  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
dollars.  Such  a  frame  will  hold  about  twelve 
hundred  plants,  so  that  the  cost  of  space  per  plant 
in  this  case  will  be  approximately  ten  and  a  half 


92  FRAMES 

cents.  As  will  be  seen,  this  is  the  cheapest  method 
for  growing  plants,  and  for  this  reason  many  adopt 
it  in  the  beginning.  There  are  so  many  disad- 
vantages in  growing  plants  in  frames,  however, 
that  they  should  not  be  used  where  it  is  possible 
to  make  a  house.  The  disadvantages  are  referred 
to  in  detail  in  other  places,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  mention  them  here. 

The  question  of  mats  or  of  some  means  of  pro- 
tection during  excessively  cold  weather  is  of  great 
importance,  for  unless  such  protection  is  given,  the 
plants  will  be  so  severely  frozen  as  to  be  made  use- 
less. The  backs  and  fronts  of  the  frames  must  also 
be  protected  as  soon  as  cold  weather  sets  in.  This 
is  usually  accompHshed  by  banking  up  soil  or  ma- 
nure to  within  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  of  the 
top  of  the  frame.  The  most  common  practice  for 
protecting  the  plants  is  using  ordinary  boards  twelve 
inches  wide  and  sixteen  feet  long.  These  are  sim- 
ply laid  on  the  frames  when  cold  weather  comes  on 
and  serve  in  a  measure  to  exclude  the  frost.  It  is 
much  work,  however,  to  put  these  boards  on  and 
take  them  off,  for  this  must  be  done  promptly  when- 
ever the  conditions  require  change.  Mats  are 
somewhat  more  convenient  and  are  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
The  cheapest,  and  in  some  respects  the  best,  form  of 
mat  is  made  of  ordinary  burlap  quilted  so  as  to 
hold  between  the  two  pieces  about  two  inches  of 


CONSTRUCTION  93 

Straw.  The  mats  are  ordinarily  made  of  what  is 
known  as  twelve  ounce  burlaps,  forty-five  inches 
wide,  which  costs  about  six  to  eight  cents  a  yard. 
The  straw  between  the  tackings  of  the  mat  is  about 
two  inches  thick,  but  where  the  tackings  are  made 
it  is  only  about  half  an  inch  thick,  as  the  string  is 
pulled  tight  and  tied  in  a  square  knot  to  prevent 
all  danger  of  its  getting  loose.  These  mats,  complete, 
cost  about  thirty-five  cents  each,  and  with  ordinary 
wear  and  tear  will  last  two  seasons.  Mats  similar 
to  these  are  now  offered  by  many  seed  dealers  at 
very  reasonable  prices,  so  that  it  hardly  pays  to 
make  them  at  home.  Straw  mats  are  also  used 
to  a  considerable  extent,  but  they  are  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  others,  and,  with  the  handling 
they  must  necessarily  get,  will  not  last  very  much 
longer. 

Mats  are  in  all  cases  preferable  to  boards.  They 
keep  the  plants  warmer  and  are  not  so  unhandy  to 
move  about.  The  boards  soon  warp  and  for  this 
reason  will  not  lie  close  to  the  glass.  They  are, 
furthermore,  constantly  in  the  way  when  laid  be- 
tween the  frames,  and  as  a  rule  cannot  be  handled 
readily  by  one  person.  Where  frames  are  made  in 
sections  it  is  the  practice  to  have  each  section  long 
enough  to  take  five  sashes.  Usually  a  space  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches  is  left  between  each  section. 
In  Summer  the  sashes  are  taken  off  and  the  frames 
are  stored  where  the  weather  will  not  affect  them. 


94  FRAMES 

There  is  no  particular  advantage  in  making  frames 
in  this  way. 

Frames  are  occasionally  heated  by  means  of 
hot  water  or  steam  pipes,  and  in  this  way  the  frost 
is  excluded.  The  ordinary  practice  of  heating 
with  hot  water  is  to  run  one  and  a  quarter-inch 
pipe  completely  around  the  frame.  The  boiler  is 
placed  at  a  point  several  feet  lower  than  the  frame, 
and  the  pipe  from  this  is  so  run  as  to  give  a  slight 
rise  to  the  end  of  the  frame  farthest  from  the  boiler 
and  a  shght  fall  from  the  far  end  back  to  the  boiler. 
The  flow  pipe  is  usually  placed  against  the  board 
on  the  north  side  of  the  frame,  while  the  return 
is  run  along  the  board  on  the  south  side. 

A  boiler  with  sufficient  pipe  to  heat  a  frame  one 
hundred  feet  long  and  six  feet  wide  will  cost  approxi- 
mately sixty-five  dollars.  While  there  are  some 
advantages  in  heating  frames  in  this  way,  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  would  not  pay  in  the  end  to  use 
the  boiler  in  heating  a  house  made  of  sashes,  as  al- 
ready described — that  is,  having  the  sashes  and  the 
boiler,  better  results  could  probably  be  obtained  by 
constructing  a  house  of  sashes  so  that  the  plants 
would  be  accessible  at  all  times,  and  there  would  be 
no  delay  or  trouble  in  case  of  bad  weather  or  heavy 
snow. 

A  summarized  comparison  of  the  cost  of  the 
different  structures  described  is  interesting,  and  is, 
in  round  numbers,  approximately  as  follows: 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  FRAMES  95 

For  the  first  type  of  house,    loox  12   feet — 

Per  running  foot $8  00 

Per  square  foot  of  bed  space 70 

Per  plant  grown  (2000  phints  in  each  house) .  32 

For  the  second  type  of  house,  1 10  x  24  feet — 

Per  running  foot 13  80 

Per  square  foot  of  bed  space 60 

Per  plant   (4000  plants  in  each  house) ....  27 

For  a  sash  house,  60  x  10  feet — 

Per  running  foot 3  75 

Per  square  foot  of  bed  space 45 

Per  plant 19 

For  a  cold  frame,  with  mats  of  straw — 

Per  running  foot i    10 

Per  square  foot  of  bed  space 10 

Per  plant 4 

For  heated  frame — 

Per  running  foot i   65 

Per  square  foot  of  bed  space 15 

Per  plant 6 

It  will  be  seen  that  of  the  two  types  of  houses 
the  larger  one  is  proportionally  the  cheaper.  It 
also  has  other  advantages,  the  most  important 
being  that  crops  such  as  roses  and  carnations  may, 
with  some  minor  changes,  be  grown  in  it.  The  low 
type  of  house,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  well  ad- 
apted to  the  growth  of  any  crop  but  the  violet.  In 
all  cases  there  would  be  a  saving  where  more  than 
one  house  is  built.  In  the  case  of  the  one  hundred 
by  twelve-foot  house,  without  intervening  walls — 

3  can  be  erected  complete  for $1,840 

5  can  be  erected  complete  for 2,415 

There  is  not  so  much  difference  in  the  one  hun- 
dred by  twenty-four  foot  house — 

3  can  be  erected  complete  for $3,105 

5    (with  a  capacity  for  20,000  plants)  can  be 

erected  complete  for 4,836 


g6  WATER  SUPPLY 


CHAPTER  IV 


WATER   SUPPLY 

An  abundant  supply  of  good  water  is  essential 
to  the  successful  cultivation  of  most  plants,  and  the 
violet  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  Water  is  needed 
not  only  to  keep  the  ground  moist,  but  to  syringe 
or  spray  in  order  to  keep  down  red  spider.  For 
ordinary  watering  no  force  is  required,  but  for 
spraying,  arrangements  must  be  made  to  get  a  pres- 
sure of  not  less  than  twenty  pounds  to  the  square 
inch  in  the  system  of  pipes.  Where  city  water  is 
to  be  obtained  and  the  rates  are  reasonable,  the  sim- 
plest plan  is,  of  course,  merely  to  get  proper  con- 
nections with  the  mains.  Where  this  is  not  practi- 
cable, however,  the  water  must  be  obtained  either 
from  wells  or  from  some  other  source,  and  must  be 
stored  in  a  tank  or  some  suitable  reservoir  to  be 
drawn  upon  when  wanted.  For  two  or  three  thou- 
sand plants  a  tank  of  one  thousand  gallons  capacity 
will  be  sufficient,  and  for  every  two  thousand  addi- 
tional plants  a  thousand  gallons  more  of  reservoir 
space  will  be  required.  Thus,  for  ten  thousand 
plants  a  tank  holding  not  less  than  five  thousand 


GASOLINE  ENGINES  97 

gallons  should  be  at  hand.  These  statements  apply 
mainly  where  windmills  are  used  for  pumping,  but 
they  will  also  hold  good  for  almost  any  kind  of  a 
pumping  apparatus,  as  allowance  must  always  be 
made  for  breakdowns  and  other  accidents. 

A  windmill  offers  the  cheapest  power  for  rais- 
ing water,  but  its  chief  drawback  is  the  uncertainty 
of  its  action.  With  a  reservoir  of  any  of  the  capaci- 
ties given,  however,  this  objection  is  in  a  measure 
overcome,  as  it  seldom  happens  that  there  are  more 
than  three  or  four  days  without  wind  and  the  sup- 
ply in  the  tank  will  usually  tide  over  these  periods. 
A  ten-foot  windmill,  with  pump  and  tower,  and  a 
five  thousand  gallon  tank  and  tower  for  same  com- 
plete, will  cost  about  three  hundred  dollars.  This 
outfit  ought,  under  all  ordinary  conditions,  to  serve 
for  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  plants. 

As  already  mentioned,  windmills  have  the  ob- 
jection of  being  uncertain  in  action.  They  further- 
more do  not  give  the  facilities  for  spraying  that 
can  be  obtained  with  other  power.  To  obtain  twen- 
ty pounds  pressure,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the 
tank  raised  more  than  forty  feet  above  the  beds, 
and  this  is  not  always  practicable.  Our  preference 
is  therefore  for  an  economical  power  that  is  ready 
at  short  notice  and  at  all  times  and  can  be  used  for 
developing  pressure  as  it  is  needed.  Such  a  ma- 
chine is  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  gasoline  engines 
now  on  the  market  and  which  can  be  bought  at  very 


98  WATER 

reasonable  figures.  A  two-horse-power  engine,  com- 
plete with  pump  for  either  deep  or  shallow  well,  can 
be  bought  for  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars.  A  tank  of  three  thousand  gallons  capacity 
will  increase  the  cost  fifty  dollars,  so  that  the  total 
expense  of  an  outfit  of  this  kind  will  be  no  more 
than  a  windmill.  By  using  a  ten-gallon  closed  steel 
expansion  tank  for  an  air  chamber,  water  can  be 
pumped  directly  into  the  pipe  system  at  a  pressure 
of  twenty-five  to  thirty  or  forty  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  system  can  have  a  safety  valve  at  some 
convenient  point,  with  the  overflow  so  arranged  as 
to  go  into  the  main  storage  reservoir.  With  this 
plan  the  water  can  be  drawn  from  the  reservoir  for 
ordinary  watering,  and  for  spraying  the  water  can 
be  forced  by  the  engine  and  pump  directly  into  the 
pipes.  The  cost  of  running  such  an  engine  is  merely 
nominal.  We  have  used  one  for  several  years  and 
find  that  a  little  over  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  a 
month  for  gasoline  and  lubricating  oil  will  give  us 
five  hundred  gallons  of  water  a  day.  A  thousand 
gallons  of  water  a  day,  which  is  enough  for  ten  to 
fifteen  thousand  plants,  would  probably  not  cost 
much  more  than  two  and  a  half  dollars  a  month. 
Such  gasoline  engines,  if  ignited  with  an  electric 
spark,  are  perfectly  safe,  can  be  started  or  stopped 
in  a  moment,  and  with  ordinary  care  will  last  for 
years. 

In  piping  houses  there  should  be  one  pipe  along 


TANKS  99 

each  path,  with  hose  connections  fifty  feet  apart. 
For  five  houses,  each  one  hundred  feet  by  twelve 
feet,  the  main  water  pipe  should  be  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter,  with  an  inch  lateral  in  each 
house.  The  hose  connections  should  be  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch,  as  it  does  not  pay  to  use  one- 
inch  hose.  It  rarely  happens  that  watering  goes 
on  in  more  than  one  house  at  a  time,  sO  that  the 
one  and  one-half  inch  main  will  be  found  large 
enough. 

We  do  not  believe  there  is  any  special  ad- 
vantage in  heating  the  water  in  Winter.  In  fact, 
so  far  as  our  experience  goes,  cold  water  is  just  as 
good  as  warm  or  *'  chilled  "  water.  This  is  the 
general  conclusion  where  careful  comparative 
experiments  have  been  made. 

It  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  be  able  to  use 
liquid  fertilizers,  and  for  this  purpose  a  small  tank 
of  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  gallons  should  be 
provided.  It  should  have  a  separate  pipe  system, 
one-inch  pipe  being  large  enough  all  round.  If  this 
tank  can  be  set  in  a  barn  loft  or  some  slightly  ele- 
vated place  where  its  contents  will  not  freeze  it  will 
be  an  advantage.  The  additional  cost  of  a  tank  of 
this  kind,  with  pipes  and  fittings,  will  be  seventy- 
five  to  eighty-five  dollars.  Such  a  tank  would  have 
sufficient  capacity  for  furnishing  liquid  food  for 
eight  to  ten  thousand  plants. 


100  PROPAGATING 


CHAPTER  V 

PROPAGATING,      SELECTING,      PLANTING,      CLEANING, 
WATERING,  ETC. 


PROPAGATING 

The  violet  may  be  propagated  in  a  number  of 
ways,  and  as  much  of  the  success  in  growing  the 
crop  depends  on  proper  methods  we  shall  go  into 
some  detail  as  to  the  various  practices  followed. 

One  of  the  most  common  methods  is  to  divide 
the  crown.  This  can  be  done  whenever  there  is 
sufficient  crown  to  divide,  but  the  common  way  is 
to  make  the  divisions  in  Spring  after  the  flowering 
season  is  over.  The  plant  is  merely  lifted  with  a 
spade  or  trowel,  and  after  all  the  soil  is  shaken  ofl" 
the  roots  the  plant  is  pulled  apart  or  cut  apart,  as 
one  may  think  proper.  In  dividing  such  a  crown 
young  plants  of  various  kinds  will  be  found.  Some 
will  have  long,  "  leggy  "  stems,  with  many  leaf  scars 
upon  them;  some  will  be  short  and  stocky;  some 
will  have  hard,  woody  roots,  while  others  will  show 
white,  clean-growing  roots  covered  with  young 
feeding  rootlets  and  root  hairs.     It  is  the  general 


PROPAGATING 


lOI 


practice  to  throw  away  the  scrawny  plants  and  to 
put  the  others  in  soil  or  sand,  or  in  a  mixture  of 
both,  in  order  to  induce  further  root  development 


33. — Cuttings  with  hard,  wiry  roots,  from  divided  crowns 


and  growth.  Some  make  a  practice  of  putting  the 
young  plants  in  a  frame  outside,  setting  them  in 
rows  about  three  inches  apart  and  two  inches  dis- 
tant in  the  row.     If  sand  is  used  about  four  inches  is 


PROPAGATING  IO3 

spread  on  the  ground,  and  after  being  firmed  with 
a  brick  or  board  the  young  plants  are  set  in  with 
a  dibble.  Whitewashed  sashes  are  kept  over  the 
frame  and  plenty  of  air  is  given  night  and  day  when 
the  weather  permits.  As  the  plants  are  never  put 
out  in  this  way  until  the  first  or  middle  of  April  no 
heat  is  required.  In  case  soil  is  used  care  is  taken 
to  add  about  three  inches  of  good  rotten  manure 
to  ordinary  garden  soil.  The  manure  is  thoroughly 
worked  in  and  the  ground  is  made  as  fine  as  it  is 
possible  to  make  it  with  rake  and  spade.  It  should 
never  be  packed.  When  smoothed  off,  set  the  plants 
the  same  as  described  for  sand.  In  both  cases  the 
plants  must  be  watched  carefully  and  syringed  every 
bright  day  in  order  to  keep  down  red  spider,  taking 
care  not  to  over-wet  the  soil.  In  six  or  eight  weeks 
after  setting  in  frames  as  described,  the  plants  will 
be  ready  to  transplant  to  the  place  where  they  are 
to  make  their  Summer  growth. 

There  are  many  objections  to  propagating 
plants  in  this  way,  and  the  best  growers  have  long 
since  abandoned  it.  In  dividing  the  crown,  and 
thereby  carrying  over  each  year  some  of  the  old 
roots,  various  diseases  affecting  the  former  are 
carried  over  also,  and  if  the  practice  is  continued 
from  year  to  year  the  tendency  is  gradually  to 
develop  a  weak,  non-resistant  stock.  The  grower  in 
such  cases  finds  himself  losing  his  abiHty  to  get  good 
plants  and  usually  satisfies  his  conscience  by  saying 


td4 


CARE  OF  PLANTS 


J 


35. — Common  form  oj  cutting  from  divided  crown.     This  will 
make  a  good  plant  if  properly  rooted  in  soil 


PROPAGATING  IO5 

that  luck  is  against  him.  We  have  examined 
thousands  of  apparently  strong,  vigorous  plants, 
after  being  lifted  in  the  Spring  preparatory  to 
division,  but  have  never  yet  found  one  where  the 
roots,  both  young  and  old,  did  not  show  disease. 
Of  these  diseases  we  shall  speak  in  the  proper  place; 
suffice  it  to  say  here  that  they  are  of  such  a  nature 
that  they  gradually  continue  their  insidious  w^ork 
after  the  young  plant  is  put  out,  and  while  the  latter 
may  appear  strong  when  it  is  put  in  the  ground, 
the  trouble  is  present,  and  after  a  while,  when  an 
extra  strain  comes,  the  effects,  in  one  form  or 
another,  will  surely  appear. 

Another  serious  objection  to  this  method  is 
that  it  must  necessarily  be  done  late,  after  blooming 
time  is  over  or  nearly  over.  This,  in  many  sections, 
will  delay  the  work  of  propagation  to  such  an  extent 
that  if  unusual  weather  conditions  prevail  through 
April  or  May  much  injury  will  result  to  the  young 
plants.  If  a  hot  spell  of  weather  comes  on,  as  it 
often  does  in  the  early  part  of  May,  the  young  plants 
are  sure  to  suffer,  and  weak,  stunted  stock  is  the 
result.  We  have  neier  found  it  safe  to  put  in  stock 
ojler  April   15th. 

Another  method  of  propagation,  and  one  open 
to  fewer  objections  than  the  last,  consists  in  cutting 
the  offshoots,  or  runners,  from  the  main  plant  any 
time  from  the  first  of  February  to  the  middle  of 
March.  In  this  case  the  main  plant  is  not  disturbed, 


io6 


CARE  OF  PLANTS 


but  the  young  offshoots,  which  in  good  plants  are 
found  in  abundance,  are  cut  off,  only  those  being 
selected  which  show  young,  white  roots.  These 
roots  in  most  cases  have  never  reached  the  soil, 
but  are  sent  out  into  the  semi-dark,  moist  air,  made 
so  by  the  plant  as  a  whole.  A  good,  strong  crown 
will  give  from  ten  to  twenty  cuttings,  such  as  we 
have  described,  between  the  first  part  of  February 


Lath  box,  or  flat,  for  rooted  cuttings 


and  the  middle  of  March.  As  soon  as  the  cuttings 
are  removed  they  should  be  thrown  into  a  box  with 
a  lid  or  cover,  so  as  to  keep  them  from  wilting. 
When  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  cut  they  are 
trimmed  up  and  placed  in  soil  as  follows: 

Prepare  the  soil  several  weeks  in  advance,  using 
four  parts  good  rotten  sod  and  one  part  finely  rotted 
manure.  Mix  thoroughly  and  screen  through  an 
ordinary  sand  screen  or  anything  having  a  similar- 
sized  mesh.     Keep  the  soil  where  it  cannot  get  too 


PROPAGATING  IO7 

wet  and  never  handle  it  when  there  Is  too  much 
moisture  present.  The  soil  being  prepared,  make  a 
lot  of  boxes,  using  for  the  ends  strips  of  undressed 
white  pine  one  inch  thick,  three  inches  wide,  and 
fourteen  inches  long.  For  the  sides  and  bottom 
use  ordinary  laths  cut  exactly  in  half.  In  making 
the  boxes  put  on  the  bottom  first,  nailing  on  the  two 
outside  laths  at  the  start,  then  filling  in  between 
with  others,  allowing  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
space  between  each  two  pieces  of  lath.  The  bottom 
being  made,  put  on  the  sides.  Each  side  will  take 
two  pieces  of  lath  without  space  between  them.  The 
boxes  are  now  ready  to  fill  with  soil,  but  before 
doing  this  spread  on  the  bottom  of  each  box  a  thin 
coating  of  wet  sphagnum  moss  to  keep  the  soil  from 
washing  out.  Put  in  enough  soil  to  stand  about 
half  an  inch  higher  than  the  edges  of  the  box,  then 
take  a  brick  and  gently  press  the  soil  down  so  that 
it  is  uniformly  about  half  an  inch  below  the  edges 
of  the  box.  Set  the  cuttings  with  a  dibble,  so  that 
they  will  average  one  hundred  to  the  box. 

In  one  box  put  thirteen  rows  of  eight  plants 
each,  in  another  twelve  rows  of  eight  plants  each, 
and  so  on.  After  setting  out  in  this  way,  the  plants 
are  shaded  and  watered  carefully  for  a  few  da}  s, 
and  then  moved  outside  into  a  coldframe,  or  prefer- 
ably kept  in  a  house  where  they  can  be  looked  after 
at  all  times.  If  put  outside  they  should  be  kept 
covered  with  whitewashed  sashes.     Where  sashes 


I08  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

are  at  hand  we  prefer  to  make  a  temporax*y  house 
out  of  them.  Such  a  house  has  already  been 
described,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  plants  can 
be  looked  after  much  better  in  them  than  in  a  frame. 
Moreover,  they  will  grow  better  because  the  air  can 
be  kept  moist,  diseases  and  insects  can  be  kept 
down,  and  all  conditions  necessary  for  growth  can 
be  managed  to  better  advantage. 

We  mention  the  ordinary  coldframe  with 
sashes  not  because  we  favor  it,  but  merely  to  show 
that  they  have  been  given  fair  trial  and  have  been 
found  wanting.  This  method  of  propagation  apphes 
particularly  to  the  Campbell  violet.  If  all  the 
conditions  are  carefully  watched,  fme  plants  can 
be  grown  in  this  way.  We  do  not  advise  using  boxes 
or  flats  with  close  bottoms,  as  drainage  is  not  so 
good  and  the  roots  in  consequence  will  not  develop 
so  well.  Roots  need  air  at  all  times,  and  where  this 
is  given  through  proper  soil,  proper  drainage,  and 
proper  watering,  it  is  astonishing  the  way  the  young 
plants  start  off  and  grow. 

The  third  method  of  propagation  and  the  one 
generally  followed  by  growers  of  Marie  Louise, 
consists  in  taking  cuttings  from  the  crowns  any 
time  between  the  middle  of  January  and  the  middle 
of  March.  These  cuttings  in  many  cases  have 
already  made  some  air  roots,  but  these  should  all 
be  trimmed  off  at  the  same  time  the  cutting  proper 
is  trimmed  up.     After  trimming,  the  cuttings  are 


PROPAGATING  lOQ 

put  in  sand  to  root.  The  sand  is  an  important  item. 
It  should  be  moderately  coarse  and  very  clean, 
especially  as  regards  decaying  leaves  or  organic 
matter  of  any  kind.  If  obtained  from  creeks  or 
small  streams  it  is  apt  to  have  too  much  organic 
matter  in  it.  River  sand  and  bank  sand  are  the 
best.  At  Poughkeepsie  most  of  the  propagating 
sand  is  obtained  from  banks  which  crop  out  at 
various  places,  and  it  is  almost  wholly  free  from 
organic  matter.  The  banks  are  really  veins  or 
strata  of  sand  deposited  ages  ago.  One  cannot  be 
too  particular  about  the  sand,  and  while  we  cannot 
describe  exactly  the  kind  to  use,  the  few  hints 
thrown  out  will  enable  the  man  of  intelligence  to 
exercise  his  judgment  properly.  We  make  it  a  point 
never  to  use  the  sand  hut  once,  as  it  is  cheaper  to  get 
new  sand  than  to  have  the  cuttings  injected  with 
disease. 

The  sand  may  be  put  in  boxes  as  already  de- 
scribed for  soil.  It  should  be  pressed  a  little  more 
firmly  than  the  soil  and  watered  before  putting  in 
the  cuttings.  The  cuttings  we  put  in  with  a  dibble 
the  size  of  a  lead  pencil,  two  hundred  cuttings  to  a 
box.  After  filling  the  boxes  the  cuttings  should  be 
looked  after  carefully  for  about  two  weeks  or  more. 
During  very  bright  days  they  should  be  covered 
with  single  sheets  of  newspaper,  and  if  the  weather 
is  warm  and  the  sun  bright  the  papers  should  have  a 
dash  of  water  thrown  on  them  with  the  sprinkKng 


o 
to 


PROPAGATING  I  1 1 

can  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  Place  the  cuttings 
in  a  sash  house  as  already  described,  or  if  there  is 
room  in  the  houses  proper  keep  them  there.  Never 
allow  them,  under  any  circumstances,  to  wilt,  for  if 
they  do  it  means  another  reduction  in  the  total  out- 
put of  salable  flowers.  Where  facihties  are  at  hand 
the  cuttings  can  be  rooted  in  a  cutting  bench,  using 
about  three  inches  of  sand  firmed  and  watered.  Put 
the  cuttings  in  rows  about  one  and  one-half  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  The  cutting  bench  must  be 
carefully  shaded  and  must  be  so  arranged  that 
currents  of  air  cannot  sweep  over  it.  The  shed 
house,  with  glass  roof  sloping  to  the  north,  already 
described,  forms  an  excellent  place  for  such  a  bench. 
It  requires  four  to  eight  weeks  for  cuttings  put  in 
sand  as  described  to  root  properly.  They  may  stay 
in  longer  than  this  without  injury,  but  as  soon  as 
they  are  well  rooted  they  should  be  transferred  to 
lath  boxes  containing  soil,  one  hundred  to  a  box.  If 
there  is  space  in  the  greenhouse  the  rooted  cuttings 
may  be  set  in  one  of  the  beds.  Plant  in  rows  two 
inches  apart  and  the  same  in  the  row,  using  a  dibble 
made  by  trimming  to  a  point  a  piece  of  broom 
handle  six  or  eight  inches  long.  Never  use  old  soil  for 
these  cuttings,  that  is,  soil  that  has  once  ieen  used 
for  violets.  It  costs  very  little  extra  labor  to  get 
fresh  soil  for  the  purpose,  and  the  labor  will  pay  a 
hundred  fold. 

The  principal  object  of  this  transplanting  is  to 


112 


CARE    OF   PLANTS 


-^ 

3 


PROPAGATING  I  I3 

get  good,  strong,  clean  roots.  We  have  had  excellent 
success  in  this  matter  by  throwing  the  old  soil  out  of 
a  bed  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  and  then  putting 
in  about  two  inches  of  coarse  coal  ashes,  broken 
clinkers,  and  the  like.  On  top  of  this  put  two  inches 
of  sifted  coal  ashes,  and  finally  four  inches  of  good 
soil,  made,  mixed,  and  sifted  as  already  described. 
The  roots  run  down  into  the  ashes  and  come  out 
clean,  white  and  beautiful,  and  covered  with  root 
hairs. 

Growers  attempt,  once  in  a  while,  to  plant  di- 
rectly from  the  sand  to  the  beds  where  the  plants 
are  to  make  their  growth.  We  have  tried  this 
plan,  but  cannot  recommend  it,  as  the  risk  in  hand- 
ling the  plants  is  too  great.  If  cloudy,  damp  weather 
follows  after  the  planting  no  harm  may  result,  but 
if  it  should  be  bright  and  warm  the  plants  will  suf- 
fer in  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done.  There  are  other 
objections  to  this  plan,  but  they  need  not  be  men- 
tioned here,  as  the  best  growers  do  not  follow  the 
practice  at  all. 

We  have  now  described  the  three  principal 
methods  followed  in  propagation.  The  last  we 
recommend  to  those  who  have  had  considerable 
experience  and  who  are  growing  Marie  Louise.  Our 
preference  is  for  a  combination  of  the  second  and 
third  methods.  In  both  cases  the  cuttings  are  taken 
from  the  plants  as  they  stand  in  the  bed.  Those 
which  have  good,  clean,  white  roots  can  be  put  in 


114  CARE    OF    PLANTS 

the  soil  as  already  described,  but  those  which  are 
just  as  good  in  every  way  except  as  to  the  number 
of  roots,  may  have  all  the  latter  cut  off  and  made 
to  make  new  ones  in  the  sand.  Following  this 
practice,  about  half  the  cuttings  go  into  the  soil  and 
half  into  sand.  This  practice  is  especially  commend- 
able where  Campbells  are  grown,  but  for  Marie 
Louise,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  sand  method 
throughout  is  beheved  to  be  the  best. 

The  plants,  when  placed  in  soil  as  already  de- 
scribed, are  to  stand  there  until  they  are  finally  set 
in  the  beds,  which,  south  of  New  York,  Pittsburgh, 
and  Chicago,  should  not  be  later  than  the  first  of 
June.  North  of  this  they  may  run  till  the  middle  of 
June,  or  at  the  very  latest  the  first  of  July.  Leaving 
out  the  first  practice  entirely,  it  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  second  the  young  plants  stand  in  soil-filled  flats 
or  boxes  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  days, 
and  then  are  set  directly  where  they  are  to  grow 
for  flowering.  In  the  third  practice  the  young 
plants  are  in  sand  about  fifty  days,  when  they  are 
transferred  to  soil  where  they  remain  until  planting 
time,  which  runs,  according  to  locahty,  from  the 
first  of  June  to  the  first  of  July.  Anyone,  by 
managing  properly  and  having  not  over  twenty 
thousand  plants,  ought  to  be  able  to  do  all  his 
planting  in  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  In  our  section, 
Washington,  we  prefer  to  plant  between  the  first  of 
May  and  the  first  of  June. 


PROPAGATING  II5 

We  have  omitted  the  practice  of  Fall  propaga- 
tion, but  it  will  be  well  to  discuss  it  briefly,  as  some 
of  the  older  growers  believed  in  it  on  the  ground 
that  it  was  the  only  way  the  stock  could  be  main- 
tained in  a  healthy  condition.  Their  argument  was 
that  the  violet  is  a  plant  that  needs  a  period  of  rest, 
and  that  propagating  in  Spring  just  after  the  plant 
had  been  pushed  through  Winter  flowering  is  con- 
trary to  nature's  methods  of  increasing  the  plants. 
It  is  true  that  the  violet  makes  its  principal  effort 
in  the  way  of  sending  out  runners  in  the  Fall, 
and  theoretically  this  would  be  the  proper  time 
to  propagate,  as  good  wood  can  then  be  had  in 
abundance.  Practically,  however,  there  are  many 
objections  to  the  plan.  Adopting  it  necessitates 
carrying  the  young  plants  through  the  Winter,  and, 
no  matter  how  much  care  is  exercised  in  watching 
them,  they  nearly  always  suff'er  either  from  being 
kept  too  cold  or  too  warm,  too  dry  or  too  moist. 
In  other  words,  despite  every  precaution  they  get 
stunted  or  checked  so  severely  that  many  of  them 
never  rally  from  the  shock;  consequently  they  do 
not  prove  as  vigorous  as  cuttings  made  in  the 
Spring  and  properly  handled. 

Another  question  to  consider,  and  one  that  we 
have  found  of  much  importance,  is  that  during  their 
long  stand  in  flats  or  beds  they  are  apt  to  become 
infected  with  one  or  more  of  the  several  stem  and 
root  diseases,  and  while  these  may  not  be  plainly 


Il6  CARE    OF    PLANTS 

evident  in  the  Spring,  they  are  present,  nevertheless, 
and  will  develop  and  do  serious  injury  later.  There 
is  this  to  be  said,  however,  that  choosing  between 
the  methods  of  division  after  blooming  time  and 
propagating  in  the  Fall,  we  would  prefer  the  latter, 
because  we  beheve  that  better  results  will  follow. 
Finally,  in  using  the  Fall-rooted  plants  there  is  al- 
ways the  danger  of  the  plants  getting  too  big.  It 
is  as  bad  to  have  a  plant  too  big  as  it  is  to  have  it 
too  smafi,  and  if  set  too  early  or  started  too  early 
the  growth  will  become  so  heavy  in  hot  weather 
that  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  keep  down  dis- 
eases and  insects.  If  a  grower  has  everything  at  his 
disposal  in  the  way  of  houses  and  facilities  for 
handling  the  young  plants  it  would  probably  be  well 
to  propagate  some  of  the  stock  in  the  Fall,  but  if  he 
has  to  put  up  with  the  ordinary  facilities  he  had 
better  leave  Fall  cuttings  alone.  Fall  propagating 
really  means  a  special  house  for  the  proper  care 
and  handling  of  the  young  plants  through  a  period 
of  six  or  eight  months — a  handling  so  that  they  will 
not  grow  too  much  or  too  little  (problems  that  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  most  men). 

We  have  now  described  the  mere  act  of  propa- 
gating or  increasing  the  number  of  plants  and  have 
next  to  consider  the  most  important  question  con- 
nected with  violet  growing,  namely,  the  selection 
of  stock  with  a  view  of  increasing  vigor  and  pro- 
ductiveness. 


SELECTION  OF  STOCK  I  17 

SELECTION  OF  STOCK  FOR  VIGOR  AND 
PRODUCTIVENESS 

To  grasp  this  question  fully  we  must  first  realize 
that  the  violet,  hke  other  plants,  is  a  plastic 
organism — that  within  a  certain  range  it  has  power 
to  change  or  to  adapt  itself  to  the  conditions  which 
surround  it.  This  plasticity  or  adaptability  of 
the  plant  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  if  all  its 
functions  were  fixed  absolutely  it  could  not  suffer 
any  change  for  long,  however  slight.  We  find, 
therefore,  in  practice,  that  plants  grown  in  one 
section  and  moved  to  another  behave  differently — 
it  may  be  in  the  matter  of  time  of  blooming, 
quantity  of  flowers,  character  of  fohage,  size  or 
color  of  flowers,  length  of  flower  stem,  or  in  many 
other  directions.  Recognizing  this  fact,  and  those 
that  are  naturally  correlated  with  it,  we  have  the 
important  practical  conclusion  that  the  only  way 
Jor  a  man  to  attain  the  maximum  results  Jrom  the 
plants  is  to  work  steadily,  intelligently,  and  rationally 
toward  the  end  of  developing  a  strain  which  will  fit 
the  conditions  which  practice  and  judgment  enable 
him  to  provide.  Of  course,  the  man  himself  is 
limited  in  this  matter,  but  he  should  endeavor 
first  of  all  to  find  out  what  his  hmitations  are  and 
then  concentrate  his  efforts  in  the  field  where  there 
is  hope  of  practical  results.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the   hmitations   are   more   fancied   than   real,   and 


ii8 


CARE  OF  PLANTS 


.top 


SELECTION  OF  STOCK  I IQ 

where  the  work  is  intelhgently  undertaken  and 
carried  out  it  is  astonishing  what  power  is  put 
within  the  grasp. 

It  is  seldom  that  violet  growers  average  more 
than  fifty  flowers  to  the  plant  for  the  season. 
There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  number  should 
not  be  increased  to  one  hundred  or  even  one  hundred 
and  fifty  flowers  per  plant  without  additional  room, 
additional  heat,  additional  fertihzers,  or  additional 
work  of  any  kind  except  in  the  care  necessary  to 
keep  up  the  stock  by  proper  selection.  How,  then, 
should  this  selection  be  started,  and  how  should  it 
be  continued  in  order  to  reap  the  full  benefit  from 
it  ?  To  start  at  the  beginning,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  first  stock  of  plants,  no  matter  where  obtained, 
will  show  diff"erences:  Some  will  be  small,  some 
large;  some  will  give  long-stemmed  flowers,  others 
flowers  with  short  stems;  some  will  show  a  tendency 
to  throw  flowers  of  a  poor  color;  some  will  have  a 
straggling  habit  of  growth,  others  will  be  compact, 
with  large  leaves  on  long  petioles.  As  the  season 
for  flower  picking  arrives  these  plants  should  be 
carefully  gone  over  and  the  grower  should  fix  in 
his  own  mind  his  ideal  or  type.  It  does  not  take 
long  to  learn  what  plants  more  closely  approximate 
the  type.  Out  of  one  thousand  plants  there  may  not 
the  first  year  be  more  than  a  hundred  that  show  the 
characteristics  he  is  after.  We  cannot  put  down 
in  black  and  white  what  these  characteristics  are, 


A.-v^^  XA^' 


4A VvV 


METHOD  OF  SELECTION  121 

except  in  the  most  general  way.  The  plants  should 
be  vigorous  and  give  every  evidence  that  they  are 
growing.  They  should  have  a  compact,  symmetrical 
appearance.  The  leaves  should  be  glossy,  green, 
large,  and  on  long  petioles,  and  should  feel,  when 
you  run  your  hand  over  them,  like  living,  growing 
things,  and  not  as  if  they  were  made  of  leather  or 
cloth.  If  a  hundred  or  less  of  such  plants  are  found, 
stake  them  before  flowering  commences,  and  to  each 
stake  tie  an  ordinary  shipping  tag.  Push  the  stake 
well  into  the  soil  so  that  it  will  not  interfere  with 
working  the  beds,  and  tie  the  tag  on  securely  so 
that  it  will  not  come  off  or  get  lost.  Each  plant  is 
then  given  a  number,  which  is  never  duphcated. 
We  give  one  hundred  plants  as  the  limit  for  the 
first  year's  work,  for  this  is  about  as  many  as  one 
can  well  handle  until  more  experience  is  gained. 
There  would,  therefore,  be  one  hundred  numbers — 
from  one  to  one  hundred.  Every  time  a  tagged  plant 
is  reached  while  picking,  count  the  number  of 
flowers  picked.  We  presume  that  there  will  be  some 
who,  upon  reading  this,  will  say:  '*  I  have  not  the 
time  to  do  this  and  what  is  the  good  of  it  all, 
anyway?  "  These  are  the  men  who  insist  that  luck 
governs  the  question,  and  while  they  will  always 
be  found  they  are  constantly  vexed  with  ups  and 
downs  and  sooner  or  later  quit.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  takes  very  little  time  to  do  what  has  been 
outlined,  and  any  one  who  will  follow  the  practice 


122  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

for  three  years  will  be  willing  to  hire  additional 
help,  if  necessary,  to  keep  up  the  work,  because  he 
will  see  that  it  pays. 

When  the  season's  work  is  over  it  will  be  found 
that  the  tagged  plants  show  many  interesting  facts. 
They  show  the  total  number  of  flowers  picked  and 
the  number  picked  each  month,  and  they  show,  too, 
the  relation  of  flower  yield  to  weather  conditions  if 
one  wishes  to  carry  the  matter  into  this  field.  Some 
plants  have  grown  fifty  flowers,  others  as  many  as 
one  hundred  and  fifty.  Some  will  give  the  greatest 
number  of  flowers  in  December  and  January,  others 
in  February  and  March.  Here,  then,  are  practical 
points  that  should  at  once  be  taken  advantage  of. 
Vigor,  health,  compactness  of  growth  being  equal, 
we  would  want  our  plants  to  yield  as  many  flowers 
as  possible,  and  at  a  time  when  they  are  worth  the 
most  money;  so  that  of  two  plants  both  of  which 
give  a  hundred  flowers,  we  would  give  the  preference 
to  the  one  that  yields  the  most  flowers  during 
December  and  January  rather  than  to  the  one  that 
gives  the  greater  yield  during  February  and  March. 
Of  the  pedigree  stock  we  would  ehminate  all  plants 
where  the  yield  the  first  year  dropped  below  seven- 
ty-five flowers.  The  second  year  we  would  eliminate 
all  plants  that  failed  to  give  more  than  ninety 
flowers,  and  the  third  year  all  those  that  failed  to 
give  a  hundred  good  blooms. 

Each  plant  can  be  counted  on  to  give  not  less 


METHOD  OF  SELECTION  123 

than  ten  first-class  cuttings,  so  that  if  only  fifty 
plants  come  up  to  the  standard  the  first  year  they 
will  give  at  least  five  hundred  good  rooted  cuttings 
for  the  second  season.  Each  of  these  plants  should 
carry  the  number  of  their  parent,  with  an  additional 
mark  to  indicate  the  season;  for  example,  the  ten 
plants  from  number  one  the  first  year  would  all  be 
recorded  as  plants  a,  next  year  the  plants  from  these 
would  be  plajits  6,  and  so  on.  If  the  work  is  carried 
out  well  the  first  year,  three  hundred  plants,  repre- 
senting the  best  of  the  five  hundred,  can  be  staked 
the  second  season.  These  receive  their  specified 
numbers,  are  watched  as  before,  and  will  give  from 
one  thousand  to  one  thousand  five  hundred  good 
plants  for  the  next  season's  crop.  Working  in  this 
way,  and  of  course  keeping  clearly  before  one  the 
importance  of  looking  after  every  detail  of  culture, 
the  average  yield  can  be  brought  up  to  the  one 
hundred  mark,  where  it  may  be  kept  as  long  as  the 
proper  vigilance  and  intelligence  are  exercised  in 
the  work.  We  are  satisfied  that  two-thirds  oj  the 
failures  in  growing  violets  come  about  Jrom  not  Jully 
recognizing  the  principles  we  have  here  set  Jorth. 
Left  to  itself,  or  if  not  properly  assisted,  the  ten- 
dency of  the  violet  is  to  retrograde,  partly  no  doubt 
because  it  has  been  grown  so  long  under  abnormal 
conditions  and  partly  for  other  reasons,  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  discuss  in  detail  here.  We  find  it 
very  much  the  condition  of  a  loaded  car  on  a  steep 


124  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

grade.  It  is  always  ready  to  go  down  hill  the  mo- 
ment we  take  off  the  brake  or  remove  the  block  from 
the  rail.  The  farther  it  goes  the  more  difficult  it  is 
to  stop,  and  if  we  do  not  put  forth  some  effort  there 
will  be  a  general  smash-up  sooner  or  later.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  dint  of  much  labor  we  can  slowly 
push  up  grade,  but  we  are  always  confronted  with 
the  fact  that  the  moment  we  lose  our  watchfulness 
the  down-hill  motion  commences,  and  away  goes 
everything  we  have  gained. 

The  author's  work  is  done  when  he  points  out 
the  facts  and  principles  involved,  and  it  remains 
for  the  reader  to  do  the  rest. 

PLANTING 

We  have  pointed  out  in  the  previous  chapter 
how  to  prepare  the  soil  and  have  shown  in  the  first 
part  of  this  chapter  how  the  plants  are  to  be  cared 
for  until  the  time  for  planting.  As  already  stated, 
we  prefer  to  get  our  plants  out  permanently  between 
the  first  of  May  and  the  first  of  June  in  latitudes 
south  of  New  York,  but  north  of  this,  planting  may 
be  delayed  fifteen  or  twenty  days.  Having  the  soil 
stacked  and  ready  near  the  houses,  the  first  opera- 
tion is  to  throw  out  the  old  plants  and  remove  six 
inches  of  the  soil  from  the  beds.  The  old  plants  are 
merely  lifted  with  a  spade,  the  earth  is  shaken  off, 
and  then  they  are  thrown  outside  into  a  heap  to  be 
hauled  away  to  the  dump  or  burned.     If  hauled 


PLANTING  125 

away  we  want  to  get  them  as  far  away  from  the 
houses  as  possible.  In  any  event,  they  should 
never  be  allowed  to  lie  around  and  rot  and  decay. 

The  soil  is  best  handled  in  wheelbarrows.  It 
is  hauled  out  and  thrown  in  a  heap  close  by,  to  be 
finally  disposed  of  when  more  time  is  at  hand.  When 
the  six  inches  of  soil  is  taken  out  all  boards  are 
examined  and  if  they  are  found  rotted  they  are  taken 
out  and  new  ones  put  in.  The  beds  are  next  forked 
over  and  air-slaked  lime  is  thrown  upon  the  ground 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  whiten  it  thoroughly.  The 
new  soil  is  then  brought  in  with  the  wheelbarrows 
and  dumped  into  the  beds.  Enough  soil  is  brought 
in  to  fill  the  beds  just  even  with  the  boards.  In 
no  case  is  the  soil  rolled,  walked  on,  or  packed  in  any 
way.  When  sufficient  soil  is  in  the  bed  the  latter 
is  leveled  off  with  a  rake,  all  clods,  stones,  large 
sticks,  etc.,  being  thrown  out.  Finally  the  beds  are 
made  smooth  and  level  by  means  of  a  straight-edged 
board  four  inches  wide  and  not  longer  than  the 
width  of  the  bed. 

The  bed  is  now  ready  to  be  marked  off.  This 
can  be  done  in  a  number  of  ways,  the  main  object 
being  to  get  the  plants  set  as  nearly  in  straight  rows 
as  possible,  eight  by  nine  inches  apart.  It  often 
happens  that  the  board  marking  the  walk  is  not 
straight  and  if  the  plants  are  set  straight  by  a  line 
they  appear  crooked  on  account  of  the  board,  as 
that  is  what  the  eye  usually  follows.    To  keep  the 


126  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

rows  straight  with  the  board  use  a  simple  T  square 
made  of  a  piece  of  four-inch  white  pine.  By  using 
the  board  of  the  walk  as  a  base  for  the  square  all  the 
rows  come  in  line  with  the  walk,  and  at  least  appear 
more  pleasing  to  the  eye  even  if  they  are  not  mathe- 
matically straight.  By  means  of  a  saw,  permanent 
hues  are  marked  off  nine  inches  apart  on  the  board 
forming  the  edge  of  the  walk.  Similar  hnes  are  made 
eight  inches  apart  on  the  square.  The  square  can 
then  be  moved  rapidly  along  over  the  ground  and 
a  hole  made  with  a  dibble  where  the  plant  is  to  be 
set.  We  usually  try  to  have  the  plants  set  back  at 
least  five  inches  from  the  edge  of  the  walk,  so  it 
takes  a  little  figuring  at  first  to  tell  how  to  divide 
the  space  across  the  bed.  As  soon  as  the  bed  is 
marked  the  plants  are  set,  as  better  results  are 
obtained  in  this  way  than  where  the  ground  is 
allowed  to  settle.  In  case  it  is  not  practicable  to 
plant  at  once,  and  if  the  ground  settles  too  much  be- 
fore planting  can  be  done,  the  beds  should  be  freshly 
turned  up  with  a  fork  and  then  raked  down  and 
smoothed  as  before  described. 

The  plants  are  cut  out  of  the  boxes  or  bed 
where  they  have  been  growing  and  all  dead  leaves 
and  buds  are  trimmed  off.  They  are  then  carried  to 
the  bed  where  they  are  to  be  planted,  and  laid  oppo- 
site each  mark  made  by  the  dibble.  The  advantage 
of  having  the  stock  plants  in  light  flats  comes  in 
here,  for  the  flats  can  be  carried  to  the  bed  and  the 


PLANTING  127 

plants  cut  out  there — we  say  cut  out,  for  we  usually 
use  a  putty  knife  for  the  purpose.  This  is  first  run 
down  between  the  rows  of  plants  in  the  box,  after 
which  a  cut  is  made  between  each  two  plants.  In 
this  way  each  plant  comes  out  with  a  square  piece 
of  soil  and  the  roots  are  disturbed  very  little.  One 
good  man  can  set  as  fast  as  two  or  three  can  prepare 
the  plants  as  described.  Where  the  reach  is  less  than 
five  feet  the  plants  can  be  set  from  the  walk,  but 
if  the  beds  are  so  wide  that  one  cannot  reach,  plant- 
ing is  done  from  a  board  laid  across  the  bed,  but  not 
so  that  it  will  compact  the  soil.  Use  a  board  twelve 
inches  wide,  and  work  backward  in  planting.  Adopt- 
ing this  plan,  two  rows  can  be  planted  without  mov- 
ing the  board.  The  planting  itself  is  an  important 
item,  and  many  plants  will  be  lost  and  others  in- 
jured unless  care  is  exercised.  The  grower  himself 
had  better  attend  to  this  matter.  We  have  never 
found  anything  better  than  the  fingers  for  planting. 
A  sHght  hole  is  made  and  the  square  of  earth  con- 
taining the  young  plant  and  its  roots  is  pushed  into 
the  loose  soil.  A  movement  of  the  hand  around  the 
plant  levels  the  soil  and  firms  it,  and  the  work  is 
done.  Having  the  beds  filled  and  leveled  and  the 
plants  furnished,  one  man  can  mark  the  soil  and  set 
three  hundred  plants  an  hour.  If  the  day  is  warm 
and  bright  it  will  be  necessary  to  water  the  plants  as 
they  are  put  out.  One  can  plant  for  an  hour,  how- 
ever, and  then  water,  allowing  the  water  to  run 


O 

a, 


SHADING  YOUNG  PLANTS  I2g 

gently  from  the  end  of  the  hose,  and  following  the 
rows  so  as  not  to  plow  up  the  ground.  At  this  sea- 
son of  the  year  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  have  all 
ventilators  and  doors  open  in  order  to  get  plenty  of 
air.  The  glass  also  should  be  well  shaded  with 
whitewash  or  with  white  lead  mixed  with  turpen- 
tine, either  one  to  be  put  on  with  a  brush.  We  have 
used  laths  for  shading,  but  abandoned  them  for  the 
reason  that  they  interfere  with  the  light  in  such  a 
way  as  to  hinder  growth.  The  shading  should  be 
only  moderately  heavy,  and  it  should  be  kept 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  throughout  the 
entire  year;  that  is.  Winter  and  Summer  we  have 
found  it  an  advantage  to  shade,  but  this  may  not 
hold  good  farther  north,  where  sunshine  is  less 
abundant. 

All  of  our  directions,  it  will  be  seen,  apply  to 
plants  grown  under  glass  throughout  the  year.  We 
do  not  recommend  field  planting  of  violets  any- 
where, that  is,  if  it  is  intended  to  grow  them  for  flow- 
ering in  houses  the  following  Winter.  It  is  very  im- 
portant, however,  to  have  some  reserve  plants,  for 
there  is  always  more  or  less  loss  in  the  beds.  Here 
again  the  cheap  frame  house  comes  into  good  use, 
for  it  is  well  adapted  for  growing  reserve  plants.  It 
is  best  to  count  on  a  loss  of  ten  per  cent.,  although 
this  is  heavier  than  it  ought  to  be.  For  ten  thousand 
plants,  therefore,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a 
reserve  of  at  least  one  thousand  plants  to  draw  upon. 


CLEANING  131 

When  frames  alone  are  used  the  plants  can  be 
set  in  two  ways:  First,  the  frames  themselves  can 
be  put  down  where  they  are  to  stay,  and  the  plants 
set  in  rows  eight  by  nine  inches,  as  already  de- 
scribed; second,  the  frames  can  be  made,  as  already 
described,  in  sixteen-foot  lengths,  and  stored  until 
wanted.  The  plants  are  then  set  directly  in  the 
open,  nine  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  rows  being 
just  long  enough  so  that  the  frame  will  fit  over 
them.  There  are  so  many  objections  to  these 
methods,  and  the  obstacles  to  overcome  are  so 
great,  that  we  do  not  recommend  them  except  in 
violet  farming.  Shade  here  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  during  the  Summer,  and  where  the 
plants  are  grown  in  open  frames  or  without  frames 
this  can  only  be  brought  about  by  using  lath 
screens  or  something  similar.  The  screens,  when 
made,  should  not  be  too  dense,  and  should  be  raised 
at  least  four  feet  above  the  plants.  In  southern  Cali- 
fornia violets  are  grown  the  whole  season  with  no 
other  protection  than  screens  made  of  laths,  raised 
about  eight  feet  above  the  plants.  The  flowers  are 
shipped  to  Los  Angeles  and  other  points,  and  are  of 
fair  quahty. 

After  the  planting  is  completed  and  everything 
about  the  place  has  been  cleaned  up  and  put  into 
shape,  the  serious  work  of  caring  for  the  plants 
commences. 


132  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

CLEANING,    WATERING,     SYRINGING,    MULCHING  AND 
FEEDING 

Eternal  vigilance  is  necessary  in  the  matter  of 
cleaning.  We  try  to  get  over  the  plants  at  least 
once  a  week,  cutting  off  all  yellow  and  dying  leaves 
and  gently  stirring  the  surface  of  the  soil  with  the 
fingers.  All  weeds,  too,  are  pulled  up  or  torn  up  in 
the  stirring.  In  cleaning,  we  never  use  anything  but 
a  knife,  as  pulling  the  leaves  off  is  a  bad  practice, 
for  it  is  apt  to  tear  the  bark  and  open  the  way  for 
attacks  of  fungi.  Toward  the  middle  of  August  the 
runners  will  begin  to  come,  and  they  must  be  cut 
off  as  soon  as  possible.  Many  abortive  flowers  will 
appear,  too,  and  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  stay  on 
the  plant.  In  cleaning,  we  have  made  it  an  invari- 
able practice  to  throw  all  dead  leaves,  runners,  etc., 
into  a  box  or  basket,  emptying  these  into  a  barrel  or 
box  outside  at  suitable  intervals.  We  do  not  believe 
it  wise  to  throw  the  material  into  the  walks,  for  no 
matter  how  soon  the  latter  may  be  swept,  some  of 
the  decaying  material  is  trampled  upon,  and  in  this 
way  the  first  steps  toward  the  beginning  of  disease 
may  be  taken.  The  only  safe  rule  to  follow  is  never 
to  allow  a  leaf  of  any  kind  to  lie  around  and  decay  in 
the  houses  or  frames.  We  have  time  and  time  again 
seen  growers  cleaning  their  plants,  especially  where 
they  are  in  frames,  and  throwing  the  dead  leaves, 
runners  and  weeds  out  under  their  feet,  to  be 
trampled  into  the  mud.     Such  growers  have  fair 


WATERING  133 

success  for  a  season  or  two,  then  wonder  why  it  is 
that  diseases  and  insect  pests  steadily  increase  until 
they  finally  get  the  upper  hand.  Cleanliness  at  all 
times,  and  a  thorough  destruction  oj  all  diseased 
leaves,  cuttings  and  plants  are  matters  that  should 
never  he  neglected. 

Watering,  to  the  ordinary  man,  may  really  seem 
like  a  simple  matter,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  the  growth  of  this  or  any  other  crop. 
No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  on  this  sub- 
ject. Water  when  the  plants  need  it,  which  can  only 
be  determined  by  experience.  We  never  water  over 
head,  but  use  the  end  of  a  three-quarter-inch  hose, 
held  in  such  a  way  that  the  water  runs  out  freely 
but  not  forcibly.  If  the  water  comes  out  with  too 
much  force  the  soil  is  puddled  and  the  plants  may  be 
washed  up.  When  the  plants  are  still  young,  and 
the  ground  is  soft,  a  good  plan  is  to  fasten  to  the  end 
of  the  hose  an  ordinary  tin  pancake  turner,  such  as 
can  be  bought  anywhere  for  ten  cents.  This  can  be 
fastened  to  the  hose  by  a  rubber  band,  and  will 
spread  the  water  so  that  it  will  fall  in  a  thin  sheet 
about  four  inches  wide.  The  water  soaks  in  when 
put  on  in  this  way,  and  seldom  causes  the  formation 
of  a  crust—the  thing  to  be  avoided.  Plants  in  hot 
weather  require  water  almost  every  day.  At  no 
time  should  the  plants  be  allowed  to  become  dry,  nor 
should  water  be  given  so  often  that  the  soil  is  kept 
constantly  in  a  pasty  condition. 


134  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

In  our  judgment  the  best  results  will  be  ob- 
tained when  the  variation  of  the  moisture  in  the  soil 
is  allowed  the  widest  range  the  plants  will  stand. 
What  this  is  cannot  be  given  in  words,  as  too  many 
conditions  are  involved.  It  is  a  question  that  must 
be  studied  by  each  individual  and  by  him  worked 
out  for  his  own  case.  The  point  we  wish  to  make  is 
that  better  growth  can  be  obtained  by  allowing  a 
certain  range  or  variation  in  the  moisture  content  of 
the  soil  than  where  an  attempt  is  made  to  keep  the 
moisture  content  at  one  point,  or  near  one  point.  If, 
for  example,  we  find  that  in  a  certain  type  of  soil 
the  best  growth  is  obtained  where  the  maximum 
moisture  content  approximates  twenty  per  cent.,  it 
will  be  best  not  to  attempt  to  hold  the  moisture 
steadily  at  this  point,  but  rather  to  allow  a  variation 
of  five  to  eight  per  cent.,  as  this  is  more  apt  to  give 
optimum  conditions  for  growth  than  where  an  eff"ort 
is  put  forth  to  hold  it  at  one  point. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  go  into  a  discussion 
of  the  physiological  questions  involved  in  this  mat- 
ter. Suffice  it  to  say  that  we  may  look  at  the  plant 
in  the  light  of  a  machine  kept  in  operation  in  part 
by  stimuli  from  without.  Stimuli  may  come  by 
changes  in  conditions,  and  if  everything  works  in 
harmony,  perfect  growth  is  the  result. 

As  the  season  advances,  the  plants  will  require 
more  and  more  water,  and  every  precaution  will 
have  to  be  taken  not  to  let  them  wilt  or  to  get  on  the 


FEEDING  135 

dry  side  so  often  as  to  check  growth.  The  plants 
must  be  kept  growing  without  a  check  of  any  kind, 
so  that  by  the  middle  of  September  they  practically 
cover  the  ground. 

From  the  time  of  planting  constant  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  matter  of  syringing.  Plants 
ought  to  be  syringed  throughout  the  Summer  and 
early  Fall  not  less  than  three  times  a  week.  We  will 
discuss  this  question  more  fully  in  the  chapter  on 
insects  and  diseases,  as  the  syringing  is  mainly  to 
keep  down  red  spider.  Always  select  bright  days 
for  the  syringing,  so  as  to  have  the  plants  dry  off 
before  night.  As  the  season  advances,  and  the 
plants  grow  larger,  much  care  must  be  exercised  in 
syringing,  otherwise  serious  results  may  follow,  as 
will  be  pointed  out  further  on.  By  the  first  or  mid- 
dle of  October  it  will  be  necessary  to  withhold  all 
water  from  the  fohage,  and  if  the  spraying  has  been 
thorough  this  can  be  done  without  fear  of  injury 
from  spider. 

About  the  middle  of  August  we  like  to  give 
the  beds  a  thin  mulching  of  finely  rotted  manure. 
Horse  manure  is  best  for  this  purpose,  as  it  works 
up  fine  and  dries  out  better  on  the  bed.  Put  on  just 
enough  to  cover  the  ground,  and  work  it  well  around 
the  plants.  The  manure  mulching  serves  to  keep  the 
ground  moist  and  free  from  weeds.  It  also  keeps  the 
flowers  cleaner  when  they  come,  and  checks  the 
growth  of  slime  and  green  molds  that  sometimes 


136  CARE  OF  PLANTS 

appear  on  the  soil.  Mulching  with  sphagnum  and 
with  pine  shavings  has  been  tried,  but  both  were 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  rotted  horse  manure. 

Feeding,  after  the  plants  are  once  estabhshed, 
is  an  important  matter,  but  our  advice  to  the  begin- 
ners is  to  let  it  severely  alone.  There  are  three  or 
four  don'ts  that  come  in  aptly  at  this  point:  (i) 
Don't  imagine  that  you  must  feed  your  plants  in 
order  to  get  the  best  results.  This  is  true  of  some 
crops,  but  not  of  the  violet.  (2)  Don't  trifle  with 
chemicals.  They  may  be  all  right  in  the  hands  of  an 
expert,  but  it  is  like  putting  strong  medicine  into  the 
hands  of  a  layman  and  turning  him  loose  to  doctor 
his  friends.  (3)  If  you  must  use  chemical  fertilizers, 
don't  experiment  on  all  your  plants,  but  set  aside  a 
few  dozen  in  one  bed  and  a  few  dozen  in  another; 
make  your  trials  carefully,  and  compare  the  results 
obtained  with  those  where  no  chemicals  have  been 
used.  We  know  from  many  experiments  that  the 
only  safe  way  is  to  feed  as  little  as  possible,  as  the 
plants,  if  let  alone,  will  take  care  of  themselves,  pro- 
vided the  soil  is  prepared  as  we  have  described  else- 
where. When  you  do  feed,  apply  only  manure 
water,  made  by  soaking  good,  strong  cow  manure  in 
water,  using  about  one-half  bushel  of  manure  to  the 
barrel  of  water.  A  watering  with  this  kind  of  fer- 
terlizer  every  ten  or  fifteen  days  during  the  Winter 
will  do  no  harm  and  may  do  good.  Great  care,  how- 
ever, must  be  exercised  in  keeping  the  manure  water 


TEMPERATURE  1 37 

fresh  and  odorless.  If  it  is  allowed  to  sour  and 
become  offensive  it  should  never  be  run  on  the  beds, 
as  the  flowers  will  take  up  the  odor.  If  we  were 
growing  roses,  carnations  or  chrysanthemums,  our 
discussion  of  the  use  of  liquid  fertilizers  would  be 
different,  as  these  are  crops  that  can  stand  feeding 
while  the  violet  cannot — at  least,  this  has  been  our 
experience,  and  the  result  of  observations  in  many 
places  and  under  widely  varying  conditions. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  there  are  several 
points  to  which  we  wish  to  call  special  attention: 
(i)  Never  delay  propagating  the  plants  until  late  in 
Spring,  for  such  stock  cannot  be  depended  upon.  (2) 
Always  propagate  two,  or  even  three  times  more 
plants  than  your  houses  or  frames  will  hold,  in  order 
to  cover  risks  and  to  have  plenty  of  stock  for  selec- 
tion. (3)  From  the  time  the  cutting  leaves  the 
parent  plant  until  it  has  fulfilled  its  mission  as  a 
full-grown  crown,  never  allow  it  to  become  checked 
in  any  way.     (4)  Adopt  a  rigid  system  of  selection. 

(5)  Practice  cleanliness  in  every  part  of  the  work. 

(6)  Apply  water  with  due  regard  for  the  plant's 
wants  and  not  by  any  set  of  rules. 


138  TEMPERATURE    AND    VENTILATION 


CHAPTER  VI 


TEMPERATURE    CONDITIONS    AND    VENTILATION 

The  violet  must  be  kept  cool,  and  any  attempt 
to  force  it  by  heat  will  prove  disastrous.  For 
Campbell  violets  an  effort  should  be  made  to  keep 
the  night  temperature  between  forty-five  and  fifty 
degrees,  with  a  day  temperature,  in  bright  weather, 
ten  to  fifteen  degrees  higher.  Marie  Louise  should 
be  kept  cooler,  say  forty  to  forty-five  at  night,  with 
day  temperature  fifty-five  to  sixty. 

When  the  weather  is  cloudy  and  cold  do  not 
attempt  to  keep  the  inside  temperature  in  the  sixties 
or  even  the  fifties.  Probably  the  safest  rule  to  fol- 
low with  the  violet  at  all  times  is  to  manage  the 
conditions  so  as  to  have,  as  near  as  possible,  an 
average  temperature  of  eight  or  ten  degrees  above 
freezing.  For  example,  if  the  temperature  outside 
is  thirty  degrees  above  zero  in  the  day  time,  and 
the  weather  cloudy,  keep  the  temperature  of  the 
houses  not  more  than  forty  to  forty-five  degrees.  If 
sunny  weather  prevails,  the  temperature  will  natu- 
rally go  higher,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  get  above 
sixty  degrees,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  by  ventilation 
and  allowing  the  heating  pipes  to  become  cold.    In 


VENTILATION  139 

the  climate  of  Washington  and  vicinity  it  is  very 
seldom  necessary  to  have  any  fire  in  the  heater  dur- 
ing sunny  weather,  unless  the  temperature  outside 
is  excessively  cold  and  high  winds  are  blowing.    As 
a  rule,  the  heat  of  the  sun  will  be  amply  sufficient 
to  keep  the  houses  in  good  condition,  so  that  it  is  al- 
ways safest  either  to  bank  or  cover  the  fires,  or  else 
allow  them  to  die  out  entirely  during  the  day.     Of 
course,  farther  north  these  rules  will  not  apply,  but 
in  a  general  way  they  will  hold  good  everywhere. 
It  must  be  understood  that  the  violet  is  unhke  the 
rose  or  carnation  as  regards  heat,  and  as  already 
pointed  out,  any  attempt  to  force  it  will  result  in 
overgrowth  of  leaves  and  blasting  of  the  flowers. 
Ventilation  has  already  been  briefly  mentioned, 
but  is  is  important  to  call  attention  to  this  matter 
more  specifically,  for  it  is  of  the  highest  importance 
to  realize  the  necessity  of  giving  plenty  of  air  to  the 
plant  at  all  times.     It  is  impossible  to  give  direc- 
tions as  to  how  and  when  to  ventilate.     The  violet 
is  a  lover  of  fresh  air  and  plenty  of  it,  so  that  there 
is  seldom  a  day  when  more  or  less  air  should  not  be 
given.     It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  is  a  sim- 
ple matter,  and  one  that  can  be  left  to  some  irre- 
sponsible person.     No  two  days  in  the  year  are  ex- 
actly alike,  so  far  as  the  requirements  for  ventila- 
tion are  concerned.     It  frequently  happens  that  air 
will  be  needed  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  and 
it  should  be  given,  not  all  at  once,  but  little  by  little, 


140  TEMPERATURE   AND    VENTILATION 

as  the  day  advances  and  the  plants  require  it.  In 
the  course  of  such  a  day  changes  may  come  about, 
necessitating  letting  the  air  off,  so  that  there  is  a 
constant  changing  either  one  way  or  another 
throughout  the  entire  day.  Even  at  night  it  is  nec- 
essary to  observe  these  precautions  in  order  to  keep 
the  plants  in  good  condition.  It  has  been  our  prac- 
tice to  allow  the  houses  to  run  just  as  cold  as  pos- 
sible in  the  early  part  of  February  and  later.  It 
will  not  injure  the  plants  late  in  the  season  to  allow 
a  little  frost  to  get  in  occasionally.  This  will  hold 
back  the  flowers  and  will  give  more  returns  as  the 
season  advances.  In  March  or  April,  if  the  weather 
is  mild,  the  doors  and  ventilators  should  be  open 
at  all  times  in  order  to  get  plenty  of  fresh  air.  If 
this  practice  is  not  followed  the  growth  will  be  so 
rapid  that  blossoming  will  soon  cease  and  there  will 
be  no  flowers  for  Easter. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  it  is  diflicult  for 
a  grower  to  handle  violets  in  connection  with  other 
crops  is  the  failure  to  furnish  proper  temperature 
and  ventilation  for  the  violets.  The  tendency  in 
such  cases  is  always  to  give  too  much  heat,  and  this, 
more  than  anything  else,  will  soon  manifest  itself 
in  the  appearance  of  small,  poorly  colored  flowers. 

The  same  care  given  in  the  houses  must  be  ob- 
served where  frames  are  used.  Plants  in  a  frame 
will  burn  up  on  a  bright  day  unless  air  is  properly 
given.     Watch  the  conditions  carefully  and  give  air 


TEMPERATURE  I4I 

when  the  plants  need  it.  Often  it  will  only  be  nec- 
essary to  raise  one  frame  in  five,  an  inch  or  two  in 
the  back.  Then,  again,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
raise  all  of  them  three  or  four  inches  to  keep  the 
plants  from  suffering.  On  mild  days  in  winter  it 
will  improve  the  plants  to  take  the  frames  entirely 
off,  occasionally,  allowing  the  air  to  dry  out  the  soil 
and  the  sun  to  warm  it.  Snow  must  be  removed 
as  soon  as  possible,  but  it  often  happens  that  a 
good  coating  of  snow  will  save  the  plants  from 
freezing.  If  it  promises  to  be  very  cold  after  a 
snow,  it  is  best  to  leave  the  latter  on  for  twenty- 
four  or  even  for  forty-eight  hours.  If  left  longer 
than  this  the  plants  may  suffer  for  want  of  light. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  give,  in  tabulated  form, 
the  temperature  records  of  a  violet  house  for  five 
months  of  the  Winter  period.  These  records,  which 
were  made  by  Geo.  Saltford,  formerly  a  violet 
grower,  of  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  show  the 
highest,  lowest  and  average  temperatures  recorded 
during  the  day  and  also  during  the  night  in  his 
houses.  A  study  of  the  records  will  be  of  value 
to  those  who  desire  to  keep  their  houses  in  the 
proper  condition  so  far  as  temperature  is  concerned. 
Although  made  at  Poughkeepsie,  the  records  are 
applicable  to  most  sections  where  violets  are  grown. 


142 


TEMPERATURE    AND    VENTILATION 


Record   of   Night    and   Day    Temperatures  and   Sunshine  for 
five  monihs 


Night 

temperature. 

Day  temperature. 

Sunshine 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees 

F. 

Date. 

Readings  at  7  a.m. 

Rea 

dings  at 

7  p.m. 

(10  equals 

Dec,  1895. 

sunshine 
all    day,    8 

equals   8-10 
of  day,  etc.) 

- 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

13 

46 

35 

40 

68 

54 

61 

8 

14 

47 

42 

44 

64 

39 

51 

10 

15 

47 

42 

44 

65 

44 

54 

7 

16 

48 

44 

46 

64 

43 

53 

10 

17 

48 

41 

44 

64 

44 

54 

10 

18 

52 

43 

42 

62 

46 

54 

5 

19 

53 

46 

49 

68 

46 

57 

10 

20 

5§ 

46 

52 

72 

52 

62 

7 

21 

58 

53 

55 

65 

53 

59 

4 

22 

60 

45 

54 

66 

44 

55 

9 

23 

54 

48 

51 

65 

50 

57 

6 

24 

60 

46 

53 

70 

47 

58 

9 

25 

54 

50 

52 

59 

50 

54 

7 

26 

55 

49 

52 

62 

52 

57 

4 

27 

57 

44 

50 

67 

46 

56 

10 

28 

47 

42 

44 

60 

42 

51 

10 

29 

52 

44 

48 

56 

43 

49 

7 

30 

50 

40 

45 

51 

43 

47 

00 

31 

60 

42 

51 

55 

44 

49 

10 

Average, 

63 

46 

or  mean .  . 

53 

44 

48 

55 

TEMPERATURE 


43 


Night  temperature. 

Day 

temperature. 

Sunshine 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Date. 

Readings  at  7  a.m. 

Read 

ings  at  7  p.m. 

(10  equals 

Jan.,  1896. 

sunshine 

all     day,    8 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

equals   8-10 
of  day,  etc.) 

I 

45 

40 

42 

58 

42 

50 

10 

2 

46 

40 

43 

61 

44 

52 

9 

3 

47 

44 

45 

71 

46 

58 

9 

4 

46 

38 

42 

60 

40 

50 

10 

5 

41 

34 

37 

^^ 

33 

48 

10 

6 

40 

31 

35 

64 

44 

54 

10 

7 

45 

38 

41 

49 

41 

45 

00 

8 

46 

38 

42 

61 

38 

49 

10 

9 

47 

38 

42 

47 

41 

44 

00 

lO 

44 

40 

42 

61 

41 

51 

8 

II 

47 

40 

43 

67 

47 

57 

00 

12 

47 

42 

44 

50 

47 

48 

10 

13 

47 

41 

44 

58 

39 

48 

10 

14 

47 

39 

43 

58 

39 

48 

10 

15 

47 

35 

41 

68 

36 

52 

10 

16 

46 

36 

41 

61 

41 

51 

10 

17 

45 

38 

41 

59 

47 

53 

8 

18 

45 

39 

42 

66 

39 

52 

10 

19 

48 

44 

46 

55 

42 

48 

00 

20 

43 

40 

41 

61 

40 

50 

5 

21 

47 

40 

43 

1^ 

41 

48 

00 

22 

47 

40 

43 

63 

41 

52 

5 

23 

44 

41 

42 

58 

41 

49 

7 

24 

46 

41 

43 

49 

40 

44 

00 

25 

47 

46 

46 

49 

46 

47 

00 

26 

48 

45 

46 

55 

45 

50 

2 

27 

45 

41 

43 

66 

39 

52 

10 

28 

45 

38 

41 

56 

39 

47 

10 

29 

44 

36 

40 

65 

36 

50 

10 

30 

45 

40 

42 

66 

45 

55 

10 

31 

45 

38 

41 

66 

39 

52 

9 

Average, 
or  mean.  .. 

46 

39 

42 

59 

41 

50 

144 


TEMPERATURE    AND    VENTILATION 


Night  temperature. 

Day  temperature. 

Sunshine 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Date. 

Read 

mgs  at  7  a.m. 

Read 

ings  at  7 

p.m. 

(10  equals 

Feb.,  1896. 

sunshine 

! 

all     day,     8 

Max. 

Mm. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Mm. 

Mean. 

equals  8-10 
of  day,  etc.) 

I 

45 

42 

43 

55 

42 

48 

00 

2 

50 

40 

45 

69 

45 

57 

10 

3 

46 

38 

42 

53 

39 

46 

00 

4 

45 

42 

43 

52 

42 

47 

00 

5 

45 

42 

43 

57 

44 

50 

00 

6 

49 

46 

47 

56 

47 

51 

00 

7 

46 

42 

44 

59 

45 

52 

2 

8 

45 

42 

43 

71 

44 

57 

TO 

9 

46 

41 

43 

44 

42 

43 

00 

lO 

44 

38 

41 

70 

41 

55 

10 

II 

44 

38 

41 

f 

39 

47 

10 

12 

42 

38 

40 

65 

42 

53 

10 

13 

46 

42 

44 

47 

42 

44 

00 

14 

47 

38 

42 

57 

39 

48 

10 

15 

47 

40 

43 

56 

42 

49 

10 

i6 

49 

38 

43 

62 

38 

50 

10 

17 

42 

35 

38 

63 

37 

50 

10 

i8 

42 

34 

38 

67 

42 

54 

10 

19 

47 

39 

43 

54 

39 

46 

7 

20 

44 

37 

40 

57 

37 

47 

TO 

21 

44 

37 

40 

62 

37 

49 

10 

22 

45 

39 

42 

62 

42 

52 

10 

23 

45 

37 

41 

60 

45 

52 

5 

24 

46 

41 

43 

$3 

43 

53 

10 

25 

47 

39 

43 

62 

40 

51 

10 

26 

44 

39 

41 

55 

41 

48 

00 

27 

44 

40 

42 

65 

40 

52 

10 

28 

44 

40 

42 

60 

41 

50 

4 

29 

51 

44 

47 

51 

49 

50 

00 

Average, 
or  mean.  .. 

46 

40 

43 

59 

42 

50 

TEMPERATURE 


[45 


Night  temperature. 

Day  temperature. 

Sunshine 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees 

F. 

Date. 

Readings  at  7  a.m. 

Readings  at  7 

p.m. 

(10  equals 

Mar..  1896. 

sunshine 

all     day,    8 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

equals   8-10 
of  day,  etc.) 

I 

5. 

47 

49 

62 

44 

53 

00 

2 

51 

44 

47 

67 

42 

54 

5 

3 

43 

39 

41 

62 

39 

50 

7 

4 

44 

38 

41 

63 

36 

49 

10 

5 

45 

38 

41 

67 

43 

55 

10 

6 

44 

37 

40 

V 

38 

54 

10 

7 

51 

44 

47 

64 

44 

54 

5 

8 

50 

4^ 

45 

^9 

39 

49 

9 

9 

45 

38 

41 

64 

39 

51 

5 

10 

44 

39 

41 

55 

40 

47 

5 

II 

43 

39 

41 

47 

41 

44 

00 

12 

44 

39 

41 

51 

40 

45 

4 

13 

42 

36 

39 

62 

38 

50 

10 

14 

37 

34 

35 

67 

41 

54 

10 

15 

48 

38 

43 

61 

36 

48 

5 

16 

45 

39 

42 

56 

41 

48 

00 

17 

44 

41 

42 

61 

43 

52 

10 

18 

43 

^ 

38 

60 

42 

51 

10 

19 

45 

38 

41 

61 

41 

51 

00 

20 

54 

42 

48 

57 

40 

48 

10 

21 

42 

38 

40 

60 

39 

49 

10 

22 

41 

37 

39 

67 

41 

54 

9 

23 

45 

35 

40 

57 

38 

48 

2 

24 

44 

35 

39 

64 

37 

50 

10 

25 

44 

38 

41 

67 

40 

53 

10 

26 

51 

40 

45 

67 

48 

57 

10 

27 

47 

36 

41 

58 

40 

49 

10 

28 

49 

39 

44 

64 

42 

53 

10 

29 

47 

40 

43 

53 

44 

48 

00 

30 

47 

44 

45 

67 

44 

55 

5 

31 

49 

44 

46 

80 

47 

63 

10 

Average, 
or  mean .  . . 

46 

39 

42 

62 

41 

51 

146 


TEMPERATURE    AND    VENTILATION 


Night  temperature. 

Day  temperature. 

Sunshine 

Degrees  F. 

Degrees  F. 

Date. 

Readings  at  7  a.m. 

Readings  at  7  p.m. 

(10  equals 

April,  1896. 

sunshine 

all     day,    8 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

equals   8-10 
of  day,  etc.) 

I 

51 

39 

45 

60 

47 

53 

7 

2 

47 

42 

44 

54 

40 

47 

I 

3 

41 

35 

38 

67 

38 

52 

5 

4 

42 

36 

39 

55 

41 

48 

10 

5 

49 

37 

43 

69 

42 

55 

10 

6 

47 

46 

46 

57 

41 

49 

5 

7 

44 

39 

41 

57 

40 

48 

00 

8 

43 

39 

41 

65 

42 

53 

10 

9 

44 

37 

40 

47 

45 

46 

10 

10 

50 

42 

46 

68 

44 

56 

10 

II 

50 

39 

44 

70 

50 

60 

8 

12 

51 

49 

50 

Z9 

51 

65 

9 

13 

50 

44 

47 

84 

50 

67 

9 

14 

60 

49 

54 

85 

60 

72 

10 

15 

67 

58 

62 

93 

65 

79 

10 

16 

70 

59 

64 

103 

69 

86 

10 

17 

69 

61 

65 

85 

64 

74 

9 

18 

72 

64 

68 

103 

72 

87 

9 

19 

71 

61 

66 

92 

70 

81 

10 

20 

74 

64 

69 

94 

73 

83 

10 

21 

72 

63 

67 

91 

70 

80 

4 

22 

69 

60 

64 

70 

43 

56 

8 

23 

47 

35 

41 

80 

57 

68 

10 

24 

60 

41 

50 

85 

59 

72 

9 

25 

54 

42 

48 

65 

54 

59 

5 

26 

55 

41 

48 

67 

53 

60 

10 

27 

58 

42 

50 

73 

58 

65 

10 

28 

59 

40 

49 

79 

60 

69 

5 

29 

64 

45 

54 

85 

65 

75 

9 

30 

57 

43 

50 

84 

58 

71 

10 

Average, 
or  mean . . . 

56 

46 

51 

76 

54 

65 

TEMPERATURE  147 

Average  Temperatures. 

Night.  Day. 

December 48  55     Degrees  F. 

January 42  50              " 

February 42  50 

March 42  51              " 

April 51  65 


148        HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 


CHAPTER  VII 


HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  grow  good 
flowers  is  not  the  only  requirement  for  success.  Af- 
ter the  flowers  are  grown  they  must  be  marketed, 
and  to  do  this  successfully  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant matters  with  which  we  have  to  deal.  Suc- 
cess in  this  particular  respect  is,  in  large  measure, 
dependent  upon  the  character  and  temperament  of 
the  man.  Some  men  may  be  excellent  growers  and 
yet  so  lacking  in  personahty  and  adaptability  that 
they  cannot  deal  with  their  customers  in  a  satis- 
factory manner  for  any  length  of  time.  It  is  very 
often  the  case  that  such  men  blame  everything  but 
the  right  thing  for  their  inability  to  get  along  and 
for  the  trouble  they  have,  not  only  with  the  dealers 
that  handle  their  stock,  but  with  the  men  who  work 
for  them  as  well.  There  is  little  hope  for  such 
people  until  they  can  be  brought  to  a  realization  of 
the  fact  that  the  difficulty  is  in  themselves  and  not 
in  the  things  around  them.  Learn,  therefore,  to 
adapt  yourself  to  the  conditions  as  you  fmd  them, 
and  things  wiH  go  much  easier  than  when  you 
attempt  to  mold  all  conditions  to  your  way  of 
thinking. 


MARKETING  THE  CROP  I49 

At  the  outset  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  needs 
of  your  market  and  try  to  meet  them  as  fully  as 
possible.  When  you  start  you  will  doubtless  be  a 
stranger— at  least  you  will  be  regarded  as  such  from 
a  business  point  of  view,  for  business  is  not  prone 
to  recognize  sentiment  in  any  of  its  dealings.  You 
will  therefore  have  to  establish  your  ability  to  grow 
good  stocky  to  grow  it  regularly,  and  to  be  able  to 
put  it  into  the  hands  oj  your  dealer  when  he  wants  it. 
This  cannot  be  done  in  one  or  two  years,  but  at  the 
end  of  three  or  four  seasons,  if  the  work  has  been 
carried  on  in  the  right  way,  your  reputation  will 
have  a  fair  start. 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  for  a  grower  who  knows 
his  conditions  and  handles  his  plants  properly,  to  tell 
by  the  first  of  October  how  many  flowers  he  can 
furnish  for  the  following  six  months;  that  is,  he 
ought  to  know  within  two  or  three  per  cent,  how 
many  flowers  he  will  have  for  October,  November, 
December,  and  each  succeeding  month  through 
March.  Knowing  this,  he  is  in  a  position  to  deal  in 
a  business-hke  way  with  the  man  or  men  who  handle 
his  flowers,  for  it  is  as  important  for  the  dealer  to 
know,  to  a  reasonable  certainty,  what  he  can  depend 
upon,  as  it  is  for  the  grower  to  know  what  he  can 
furnish.  Much  of  the  complaint  which  arises  about 
poor  prices  being  received  for  flowers  is  not  because 
the  flowers  are  not  good,  but  it  is  on  account  of  the 
spasmodic  way  in  which  they  are  sent  in,  and  the 


43- — Violets  bunched  for  Philadelphia  market,  some  of  the  flowers 
projecting  Jrom  the  bunch 


MARKETING  I5I 

fact  that  they  have  to  take  their  chances  with  a 
great  mass  of  stock  of  this  kind.  Between  the  last 
purchaser  or  consumer  and  the  grower  there  is  a 
direct  connection  in  this  matter.  Even  though 
flowers  are  a  luxury,  customers  soon  learn  where 
the  supply  is  steady  and  the  quahty  high.  They 
recognize  this,  and  are  wilhng  to  pay  for  it.  The 
dealer,  in  time,  knows  the  growers  he  can  depend 
upon,  and  can  afford  to  pay  them  a  higher  price 
for  their  stock  than  the  men  who  can  give  no  re- 
hable  assurance  as  to  what  they  can  furnish  from 
one  week  to  another.  It  is  this  very  fact  that 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  growing  the  plants 
in  houses,  for  if  they  are  in  frames  a  snow  storm  or 
cold  snap  may  close  up  everything  for  a  week  or 
more,  and  in  the  meantime  the  demand  in  the  city 
has  not  diminished  in  the  least. 

Outside  of  whalt  has  been  said,  however,  there 
are  many  details  that  influence  the  success  of  dis- 
posing of  stock.  Every  market  has  its  peculiarities, 
and  these  must  be  studied  and  attended  to.  We 
cannot  point  out  these  conditions,  for  they  vary  so 
much,  and  change  so  often,  that  the  matter  is  one 
that  will  have  to  be  taken  in  hand  by  the  grower 
himself. 

The  methods  of  bunching,  arranging  of  the 
leaves,  and  other  matters  all  vary  in  diff'erent  sec- 
tions, and  we  can  only  describe  some  of  the  more 
important  ones  here.    Before  proceeding  to  do  this, 


44* — Violets  bunched  for  Washington  market,  using  Princess  of 
Wales  leaves 


MARKETING  I53 

however,  it  would  be  well  to  consider  more  in  detail 
some  of  the  methods  of  disposing  of  the  flowers. 
The  grower  may  sell  his  flowers  direct  to  the  retailer, 
or  he  may  dispose  of  them  through  the  commission 
merchant.  Each  plan  has  its  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages, and  these  we  shah  now  point  out.  No  one 
questions  the  fact  that  there  are  plenty  of  honest, 
straightforward  business  men  in  both  lines.  There 
are  frauds,  of  course,  but  we  meet  them  everywhere, 
and  as  soon  as  one  is  found  out  he  should  be  dropped. 
The  retailer  pays  for  the  flowers  outright,  and  un- 
less the  grower  is  in  a  position  to  demand  something 
better  he  will  get  just  half  the  retail  price  for  his 
stock;  that  is,  if  violets  are  selling  at  two  dollars  per 
bunch  of  fifty  flowers,  the  grower  will  get  one  dollar; 
if  they  are  selling  for  one  dollar,  he  will  get  fifty 
cents.  This  seems  Hke  a  big  margin  of  profit  for 
the  retailer,  but  in  reaHty  the  risks  are  so  many  that 
it  is  about  all  he  can  afford  to  pay  to  the  grower 
who  cannot  count  on  what  he  can  furnish  in  the  way 
of  quantity  or  quality.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
grower  who  conducts  his  business  in  the  proper  way 
can  make  up  his  schedule  of  prices  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season,  and  the  retailer,  knowing  his  man,  and 
that  he  can  depend  upon  him,  can  aff^ord  to  pay  him 
more.  In  fact,  the  prices  in  such  cases  should,  and 
will,  run  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  higher 
than  in  the  first  plan  described.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  grower  who  sells  to  the  retailer  has  no  opportu- 


154         HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 

nity  as  a  grower  to  enlarge  his  reputation,  for  the 
purchaser  seldom  knows  who  grows  the  stock.  The 
fact  is  that  a  large  portion  of  the  purchasers  have 
the  innocent  delusion  that  the  retailer  himself  grows 
all  the  stock  he  sells.  The  grower,  therefore,  has  no 
way  of  extending  his  reputation,  and  if  anything 
should  happen  to  the  retailer  who  handles  his  flowers 
he  will  have  to  start  over  again  with  a  new  man, 
which  is  a  thing  not  always  easy  to  do.  Again,  the 
retailer  must  necessarily  be  more  exacting  in  his  de- 
mands. He  has  orders  to  fill  at  all  times  of  the  day, 
and  every  day  in  the  week,  and  the  grower  must 
always  be  willing  and  ready  to  fill  such  orders. 

In  selling  through  commission  merchants  the 
stock  is  put  in  competition  with  others,  and  its  mer- 
its will  always  tell  in  the  hands  of  a  fair  merchant — 
the  only  kind  it  pays  to  deal  with.  It  is  true  that  a 
commission  must  be  paid,  but  where  this  is  done, 
and  the  flowers  are  put  up  and  delivered  properly 
and  in  good  shape,  the  net  returns  will  equal  those 
from  the  retailer.  In  selling  through  the  commission 
merchant  the  grower  has  practically  unlimited  op- 
portunity for  extending  his  reputation.  Every  ship- 
ment should  indicate  plainly  who  the  grower  is,  and 
the  retailers,  who  are  constantly  on  the  lookout  for 
good  material,  soon  learn  where  they  can  get  it,  and 
will  pay  for  it  accordingly.  Furthermore,  the  grower 
in  such  cases  can  manage  his  business  so  as  to  pick 
his  flowers  at  regular  times,  and  all  of  the  work 


PICKING  155 

about  the  place  can  therefore  be  put  on  a  more  sys- 
tematic basis.  Where  a  grower  is  so  situated  that  he 
can  reach  several  good  markets  within  one  to  eight 
hours,  it  would  be  best  to  combine  the  two  plans,  as 
may  frequently  be  done.  The  nearest  market,  which 
he  could  reach  daily  perhaps  in  person,  might  be 
given  up  to  dealing  with  the  retailer,  while  the  com- 
mission merchant  could  be  used  in  the  more  distant 
markets.  It  is  seldom  desirable  to  sell  to  more 
than  one  retailer  in  a  city,  for  if  you  have  good 
stock,  and  your  merchant  is  doing  the  proper 
amount  of  business,  he  can  handle  without  difficulty 
all  you  can  supply.  He  will  furthermore  do  it 
better  and  more  to  your  advantage  than  if  you  at- 
tempt to  divide  up  your  stock  among  several  re- 
tailers. All  these  matters  and  many  others  will 
have  to  be  studied  by  each  individual,  and  if  done 
intelhgently  the  best  and  most  profitable  method 
will  soon  be  learned. 

Coming  now  more  particularly  to  the  details  of 
handling  the  crop,  it  must  be  understood  that  in  ad- 
dition to  being  put  up  in  an  attractive  manner,  the 
violet,  to  sell  at  the  best  price,  must  have  other 
quahties.  The  stems  must  be  long,  and  the  flowers  of 
a  good  color,  large,  and — most  important  of  all — 
they  must  be  sweet,  A  violet  without  sweetness  is  not 
wanted  anywhere,  and  a  failure  to  recognize  this 
leads  to  more  trouble  than  any  other  one  thing  con- 
nected with  the  work.    Violets,  properly  grown,  are 


156        HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 

always  sweet,  but  all  the  delicious  odor  may  be  lost 
through  improper  handling.  The  flower  loses  its 
odor  rapidly  as  soon  as  it  is  removed  from  the  plant, 
and  the  quicker  it  reaches  the  retailer's  hands  the 
sweeter  it  will  be.  Long-distance  shipments,  there- 
fore, are  never  satisfactory,  for  by  the  time  the  flow- 
ers reach  their  destination  they  have  lost  nearly  all 
their  odor.  Ten  to  thirteen  hours  from  the  time  of 
picking  until  the  market  is  reached  is  practically  the 
limit  as  far  as  relates  to  holding  the  sweetness  of 
the  flower.  It  is  unwise,  therefore,  to  pick  the  after- 
noon of  one  day,  and  after  holding  the  flowers  over 
night,  ship  the  following  morning.  It  is  best,  when- 
ever possible,  to  have  the  flowers  picked  early  in 
the  morning  and  reach  market  the  same  morning, 
or  not  later  than  the  middle  of  the  same  afternoon. 
If  picked  late  in  the  afternoon  they  should  be 
shipped  that  night  so  as  to  be  in  the  market  early 
the  next  morning. 

The  best  times  for  picking  are  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  late  in  the  afternoon,  that  is,  between  six 
and  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  four  and  six 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Different  plans  are  adopted 
in  picking  and  bunching.  As  a  rule,  fifty  flowers  are 
put  in  a  bunch,  and  the  bunch  is  then  backed  up 
with  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  leaves  and  tied  with 
violet-colored  cord.  It  is  customary  in  most  estab- 
lishments to  do  this  work  directly  in  the  beds.  One 
or  two  men  pick  and  tie  the  flowers  temporarily  in 


PICKING  157 

bunches  of  fifty.  Another — more  expert  in  shaping 
the  bunches — unfastens  the  temporary  tie,  and,  af- 
ter arranging  the  flowers  in  symmetrical  and  com- 
pact form,  picks  and  adds  the  leaves,  and  the  bunch 
is  then  tied  permanently.  After  tying,  the  bunches 
are  placed  in  pans  of  water  six  inches  deep,  with 
cross-bars  of  laths  or  other  strips  to  hold  the  flowers 
and  leaves  out  of  the  water.  Placed  in  water  in  this 
way  the  flowers  soon  stiff'en  up,  and,  if  kept  cool, 
they  lost  little  of  their  odor. 

Another  method,  and  one  we  prefer  to  follow,  is 
to  pick  the  flowers  and  tie  them  roughly  in  bunches 
of  one  hundred.  They  are  then  carried  immediately 
to  a  cool  bunching  room  and  placed  in  water.  When 
all  is  ready  they  can  be  bunched  by  experienced 
hands  and  rapidly  sorted  at  the  same  time.  Work- 
ing in  this  way  two  men  can  pick  and  bunch  from  a 
thousand  to  twelve  hundred  an  hour.  This  does  not 
mean  merely  throwing  the  flowers  together  and  ty- 
ing them  with  a  string,  but  it  involves  the  exercise 
of  taste  and  judgment  in  having  a  symmetrical,  yet 
compact,  bunch  tastefully  surrounded  by  leaves 
arranged  so  as  to  present  a  neat  margin  of  green. 
The  question  of  bunching  is  an  important  one — so 
important,  in  fact,  that  it  often  makes  a  big  dif- 
ference in  the  price  obtained  for  the  flowers.  A 
little  time  spent  in  any  of  our  wholesale  markets 
shows  this  fact  strikingly.  Good  flowers  will  come 
in  poorly  bunched,  and  with  a  few  little  straggHng 


158         HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 


BUNCHING  159 

yellow  leaves  sticking  out  from  the  center.  Such 
flowers,  although  good  in  themselves,  are  apt  to 
bring  fifty  per  cent.  less  than  those  from  another 
source  tastefully  and  attractively  put  up  and  prop- 
erly packed.  Once  in  a  while,  too,  in  careless 
bunching,  a  faded  or  dirty  flower  is  put  in.  This 
invariably  spoils  the  bunch,  and  is  very  apt  to 
knock  off"  profits  on  the  whole  shipment.  It  would 
pay  many  growers  who  complain  of  poor  prices  to 
make  weekly  visits  to  their  markets,  and  if  they  are 
at  all  alert  they  will  soon  learn  that  the  trouble  is 
not  all  with  the  much-abused  commission  man.  So 
important  is  the  matter  of  bunching  that  the  grower 
himself  ought  to  attend  to  it  personally  or  at  least 
see  that  every  bunch  receives  his  rigid  inspection 
before  it  goes  out  of  his  hands. 

It  is  customary,  in  shipping,  to  pack  either  in 
return  or  gift  boxes.  Here,  also,  great  care  must  be 
exercised  to  make  the  packages  attractive,  both  on 
the  outside  and  inside.  The  more  common  practice 
is  to  use  return  wooden  boxes  with  hinged  lids,  each 
box  holding  from  a  thousand  to  one  thousand  five 
hundred  flowers.  The  bunches,  as  they  are  taken 
from  the  water,  have  the  stems  wrapped  in  soft  tis- 
sue paper.  The  stems  are  then  dipped  in  water  again 
and  the  bunches  packed  closely  in  the  box,  stems 
down.  When  propeily  packed  the  flowers  should 
not  shake  or  mash.  Finally  the  boxes  are  sealed 
and  are  labeled  with  the  grower's  name  and  address. 


46. — Leaves  of  California  violet  wired  together  for 
bunching  flowers 


PACKING  THE  FLOWERS  lOI 

Before  beginning  the  packing  the  boxes  are 
lined  with  newspapers,  with  oiled  paper  next  to  the 
flowers.  In  Winter  great  care  has  to  be  exercised  to 
keep  the  flowers  from  freezing.  It  is  often  necessary 
to  line  the  boxes  with  six  or  seven  thicknesses  of 
newspaper  in  order  to  keep  out  frost.  In  some  cases 
felt  is  used,  but  newspapers,  being  always  set  hand, 
are  more  convenient,  and  besides  are  just  as  ser- 
viceable, and  in  some  respects  more  desirable. 

In  some  cases  a  plan  of  packing  flowers  in  wood- 
en boxes  provided  with  trays  is  followed.  Such  trays 
are  made  about  two  inches  deep,  and  have  wire  net- 
ting on  the  bottom.  The  mesh  of  the  netting  must 
be  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  the  stems  to  project 
through.  These  make  excellent  shipping  boxes,  and 
by  arranging  two  trays  in  a  box,  from  one  thousand 
to  twelve  hundred  flowers  can  be  shipped  in  one 
package.  The  same  precautions  to  prevent  frost  in- 
juries must,  of  course,  be  exercised  in  this  case. 

At  this  point  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
no  matter  by  what  railroad  the  flowers  are  shipped, 
extra  precautions  must  be  taken  to  keep  out  frost. 
Although  the  packages  may  start  out  in  a -well- 
heated  car,  it  is  always  difficult  to  foresee  what  will 
happen  to  them  before  they  reach  their  destination. 
It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  keep  a  close  watch  on 
weather  conditions,  and  make  the  packing  in  accor- 
dance with  what  the  best  judgment  is  in  regard  to 
the  likelihood  of  a  cold  snap. 


I  62 


HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 


Another  very  satisfactory  means  of  packing 
flowers  was  the  one  devised  by  P.  H.  Dorsett. 
Instead  of  the  wooden  boxes  he  used  ordinary 
leatherette  telescopes,  which  he  had  made  to  order. 
The  description  is  as  follows:  The  boxes  are 
eighteen  inches  long,  ten  inches  wide,  and  seven 
inches  deep.     The  cover  fits  over  the  inside  box, 


47. — Leatherette  shipping  box,  open 

and  the  whole  is  fastened  by  a  strap  at  each  end. 
A  handle  is  put  on  the  top  so  that  the  package  is 
very  easily  looked  after  by  the  expressmen  and 
others  who  have  to  handle  it.  A  wire  frame  is  made 
to  fit  inside  the  box,  the  meshes  of  the  wire  being 
about  half  an  inch  square.  Ten  holes  are  cut  in  the 
wire,  each  two  inches  square,  to  take  the  bunches  of 


PACKING  THE  FLOWERS  163 

violets.  The  frame  is  made  seventeen  inches  long, 
nine  inches  wide,  and  four  inches  deep.  The  stems 
of  the  bunches  are  inserted  into  the  holes  and  the 
five  hundred  flowers  packed  neatly  into  the  box. 
These  packages  save  considerable  expense  in  express 
charges.  They  are,  of  course,  returned,  and  with 
good  usage  will  probably  last  for  several  seasons. 


■  i    I      I 


48. — Shipping  box,  showing  wire  screen  for 
holding  bunches 

The  cost  of  these  telescopes,  complete,   including 
wire,  is  about  two  dollars  each. 

In  cold  weather,  a  second  covering,  which  slips 
over  the  entire  box,  is  used.  In  addition  to  this, 
quilts  of  cotton  batting  are  employed,  so  that  there 
is  about  an  inch  of  frostproof  material  protecting 
the  flowers.  As  in  other  cases,  the  stems  of  the  vio- 
lets are  wrapped  in  moist  tissue  paper  and  a  layer  of 


164        HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 

oiled  paper,  which  is  put  into  the  box  before  the 
flowers  are  inserted,  keeps  in  the  moisture  and  odor. 
It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  such  packages 
are  handled  more  gently  by  expressmen,  and  the 
flowers,  in  all  cases,  reach  their  destination  in  excel- 
lent shape.    Once  in  a  while  some  are  lost  through 


49. — Sbippinglbox,  closed[^andl^strapped 


frost,  but  this  seldom  occurs  except  through  the 
carelessness  of  the  railroad  people. 

The  gift  boxes,  which  are  not  returned  to  the 
grower,  are  usually  made  of  three-eighth-inch  pine. 
They  are  deep  enough  for  the  bunches  in  an  upright 
position,  and  hold  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thou- 


SELLING  THE  FLOWERS  165 

sand  flowers.  After  being  packed  and  carefully 
nailed,  they  are  wrapped  with  newspapers  or  other 
coverings  to  exclude  the  frost.  These  boxes  have 
some  advantages,  but  they  also  have  many  disad- 
vantages, chief  of  which  may  be  mentioned  the  fact 
that  the  violets  in  them  never  make  as  good  a  show- 
ing as  where  they  are  in  neat  packages,  such  as 
already  described. 

Almost  all  violets  are  now  packed  and  shipped 
in  corrugated  paper  boxes,  each  bunch  of  fifty  or 
one  hundred  violet  blooms  of  the  higher  grades 
being  wrapped  separately  in  a  piece  of  wax  paper. 
Three  sizes  of  these  boxes  are  in  general  use,  namely, 
the  large  size  holding  from  2500  to  3000,  the  medi- 
um holding  from  1500  to  2000,  and  the  small  hold- 
ing from  1000  to  1500  blooms.  In  very  cold 
weather  these  boxes  are  hned  firstly  with  several 
thicknesses  of  newspaper,  secondly  with  tissue, 
and  thirdly  with  wax  paper,  which  comes,  of  course, 
next  to  the  blooms.  The  box  itself  is  wrapped 
in  several  thicknesses  of  heavy  manila  or  other 
wrapping  paper. 

Where  the  market  can  be  easily  reached,  it  is, 
of  course,  not  necessary  to  exercise  the  precautions 
above  mentioned  in  getting  the  flowers  to  their  des- 
tination. In  many  cases  it  is  practicable  for  the 
grower  to  take  his  stock  to  market  in  a  wagon  or  to 
send  or  take  it  by  train.  This  is  especially  the  case 
when  deahng  with  the  retailer,  and  in  such  instances 


50.— Box  oj  violets  packtd  Jur  market 
The  illustration  shows  a  box  of  fifteen  bunches  of  Marie  Louise  violets 
packed  for  market.  Each  bunch  contains  100  blooms  and  is  covered  with 
wax  paper  which  completely  envelops  the  flowers  and  is  twisted  below 
around  the  stalks.  The  bunches  are  then  set  with  the  flowers  uppermost, 
so  that  they  appear  to  be  resting  on  the  base  of  their  stalks.  Of  course, 
the  packing  is  compact,  and  the  bunches  cannot  therefore  shift  very  much. 
The  box  in  which  the  flowers  are  packed  is  lined  with  ordinary  newspap>ers 
and  these  also  are  brought  in  over  the  top  of  the  bunches  and  the  lid 
then  fastened  down. 


SELLING  THE  FLOWERS  1 6? 

it  is  necessary  only  to  see  that  the  flowers  are  kept 
from  frost  and  from  being  unnecessarily  shaken  or 
jarred.  It  is  always  best,  however,  to  wrap  the  stems 
in  moist  paper,  as  it  has  been  found  by  experience 
that  by  doing  this  the  flowers  are  kept  fresh  and 
sweet  much  longer  than  they  otherwise  could  be. 
We  cannot  emphasize  too  strongly  the  importance  oj 
studying  the  markets.  You  must  know  what  is  wanted, 
and  keep  fully  posted  upon  every  detail  in  order  to 
command  the  best  prices. 

One  feature  of  marketing  violets  may  be  cited 
here  as  a  suggestion.  It  is  given  as  a  suggestion  for 
the  reason  that  so  far  as  we  know  it  has  never  been 
attempted  in  practice.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  start  what  could  be 
called  a  violet  store  in  almost  every  city  of  fifty  thou- 
sand or  more  inhabitants.  In  such  cases  it  might 
not  be  necessary  to  use  an  entire  storeroom  for  the 
purpose.  Some  of  the  large  business  houses  might 
furnish  the  desired  space,  or  else  room  could  be  pro- 
cured in  other  ways.  It  would,  of  course,  be  im- 
portant to  be  located  in  a  good  business  section,  the 
idea  being  to  devote  the  entire  work  to  the  sale  of 
violets,  retail  and  wholesale.  By  exercising  the 
proper  taste  in  fitting  up  such  a  place,  taking  advan- 
tage of  all  new  ideas  in  the  matter  of  decorations, 
boxes,  ribbons,  etc.,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
such  an  establishment  would  not  prove  profitable. 
It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  proprietor  of  such  a 


l68         HANDLING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP 


SELLING  THE  FLOWERS  169 

place,  of  course,  to  attend  closely  to  the  wants  of 
customers  and  to  try  out  novelties  either  in  varieties 
or  make  up. 

Throughout  the  entire  work  every  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  flowers  away  from  all  for- 
eign odors.  A  new  pine  box,  for  instance,  may  cause 
trouble.  Any  objectionable  odor,  in  fact,  either  in 
the  box,  the  paper,  or  the  room  where  the  work  is 
carried  on,  is  apt  to  be  taken  up  by  the  flowers  and 
to  destroy  their  sweetness. 


170  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


CHAPTER  VIII 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

No  hard  and  fast  lines  can  be  drawn  between 
diseases  and  insect  attacks.  Strictly  speaking,  a 
disease  is  any  derangement  of  the  functions  of  the 
plant,  be  it  caused  by  fungous  attacks,  insect  in- 
juries, environment,  or  a  combination  of  all.  For 
convenience,  we  may  discuss  the  subject  under  two 
heads,  (i)  diseases  and  their  treatment,  (2)  insect 
enemies  and  methods  of  combating  them. 

DISEASES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

Probably  no  other  subject  connected  with  violet 
growing  has  been  so  much  discussed  as  the  diseases. 
This  is  nothing  more  than  might  be  expected,  for  the 
final  effects  of  all  proper  or  improper  methods  of 
cultivation  are  manifested  either  in  the  form  of 
health  or  disease.  The  plant,  in  other  words,  is 
largely  what  the  grower  makes  it,  and  if  he  thor- 
oughly understood  his  work  there  would  be  little 
need  for  writing  this  chapter.  This  is  equivalent  to 
saying  that  the  question  is  largely  one  of  knowing 
how  to  make  the  conditions  or  environment  so  near- 
ly perfect  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  disease.   It 


DISEASES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT  I7I 

must  be  understood,  of  course,  that  we  are  dealing 
with  plants  in  a  different  way  from  what  they  are  as 
we  find  them  in  the  open  air,  where  they  are  depend- 
ent on  water,  air,  heat  and  light  as  furnished  by 
nature.  Under  glass,  man  can  not  only  do  much  to- 
ward getting  just  the  plant  he  wants  for  the  condi- 
tions he  has,  but  can  approach  the  problem  from 
another  direction  and  provide  the  conditions  best 
for  his  plant.  Let  us  make  this  point  perfectly 
plain,  for  few  growers  appreciate  it  or  realize  the 
real  power  behind  it.  Theoretically  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  if  the  needs  of  the  plant  and  the  environ- 
ment were  exactly  balanced,  perfect  growth  would 
result.  Going  farther,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  just  the 
right  conditions  could  be  furnished  at  all  times,  and 
the  plant,  through  its  adaptability,  were  able  to 
meet  them  exactly,  growth  would  not  only  be  per- 
fect, but  life  itself  would  be  continuous.  We  cannot, 
of  course,  reach  this  ideal,  but  we  can  strive  to  ap- 
proximate it,  and  this  is  the  gist  of  all  that  we  have 
said  in  previous  chapters  on  soil,  watering,  feeding, 
propagation,  selection,  etc.;  so  that  when  it  really 
comes  to  discussing  the  diseases  there  is  little  ad- 
ditional to  say,  except  to  describe  the  way  the  plant 
behaves  when  diseased,  and  to  point  out  the  best 
line  of  action  in  order  to  once  again  restore  the 
equilibrium  existing  between  the  plant  on  the  one 
hand  and  its  environment  on  the  other. 

The  really  important  diseases  of  the  violet  are 


172  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

comparatively  few  in  number,  and  in  the  order  of  the 
injuries  they  produce  they  may  be  given  as  follows: 
(i)  spot,  or  spot  disease;  (2)  wilt,  or  stem  rot;  (3) 
nanism,  or  stuntedness;  (4)  scald,  or  edge  burn;  (5) 
oedema,  or  wart  disease;  (6)  crown  rot;  (7)  root 
galls,  and  (8)  bud  nematodes. 

Spot,  or  Spot  Disease.  This  is  usually  re- 
ferred to  as  "the  violet  disease,"  and  is  recognized  by 
growers  generally  as  the  most  serious  enemy  with 
which  they  have  to  deal.  Much  has  been  written 
about  it,  and  many  theories  have  been  advanced  as 
to  its  cause.  There  is  no  question  that  spot  can  be 
produced  in  many  ways,  and  may  result  from  the  at- 
tacks of  a  number  of  different  fungi.  The  true  spot 
disease,  however  (the  one  which  under  certain  con- 
ditions may  sweep  away  an  entire  field  or  house  of 
plants  in  a  few  weeks),  has  always  associated  with  it 
a  specific  fungus.  The  fungus  is  found  wherever 
there  is  true  spot,  and  the  spot  occurs  in  this  coun- 
try wherever  the  violet  is  grown.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  the  relation  of  this  fungus  to  the  disease, 
for  time  and  time  again  the  connection  hds  been 
proved  by  careful  scientific  experiments.  The  fun- 
gus itself  is  a  species  of  Alternaria*,  and  can  be 
grown,  watched,  and  handled  as  readily  as  the  violet 
plant  upon  which  it  fives.  The  writer  has  never  seen 


*See    Spot     Disease    of   the    Violet,    Bulletin    No.     23,     Division    of 
Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  p.   11- 


SPOT,   OR  SPOT  DISEASE 


173 


a  house,  a  frame,  or  a  field  where  this  fungus  was  not 
present,  and  plants  have  been  examined  from  Mas- 
sachusetts to  Cahfornia.  Often  spotted  leaves  are 
found  on  which  even  the  microscope  fails  to  reveal 


52. — Spot  disease.     Early  effects  on  foliage 


the  presence  of  the  fungus  externally.  If  these 
leaves  are  placed  in  moist  air  for  twenty-four  hours, 
however,  an  abundant  crop  of  reproductive  bodies 
will  be  found  on  the  diseased  areas. 


174  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

The  effects  of  spot  are  so  well  known  as  to  re- 
quire but  little  description  to  recognize  them.  The 
first  effects,  however,  are  usually  overlooked,  and  it 
is  really  after  the  plant  has  in  a  measure  succeeded 
in  protecting  itself  that  the  attention  of  the  grower 
is  called  to  the  injuries.  Ordinarily  the  first  indi- 
cation of  a  serious  attack  in  a  house  or  in  a  field  is 
a  pecuhar  odor  wholly  indescribable,  but  which, 
once  experienced,  will  never  be  forgotten.  It  is 
sickening,  and  can  be  approximated  by  putting  a 
lot  of  violet  leaves  in  water,  placing  them  in  a 
warm  room,  and  allowing  them  to  wilt. 

An  examination  of  the  leaves  when  this  odor 
is  first  noticed  will  reveal  numerous  greenish  water- 
soaked  spots,  varying  in  size  from  a  pin  head  to  the 
blunt  end  of  a  lead  pencil.  There  may  be  only  one 
or  two  such  spots  on  a  leaf;  then  again  the  whole 
leaf  and  plant  may  be  peppered.  This  is  spot,  and 
two  or  three  badly  affected  plants  in  a  house  will 
make  themselves  known  to  the  trained  nostrils. 
Early  in  the  morning,  before  the  ventilators  are 
raised,  is  the  time  to  catch  the  odor,  or  else  at  night, 
after  everything  has  quieted  down.  As  the  spots  en- 
large, the  central  portion  retains  at  first  a  pale 
greenish  yellow  color,  soon  becoming  a  pale  buff, 
with  a  more  or  less  distinct  margin  of  umber. 
Surrounding  this  is  a  ring  retaining  some  of  the  pale 
yellow  green,  but  almost  transparent.  Imme- 
diately around  this  is  a  ring  of  a  green  slightly 


SPOT,   OR  SPOT  DISEASE 


175 


^w 

i 'k 

1  t^k 

''t'^P 

13. — Spot  disease  on  hardy  English  violets 


176  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

paler  than  the  surrounding  portion  of  the  leaf,  but 
appearing  darker  when  held  between  the  observer 
and  the  light. 

Usually,  when  the  spots  have  reached  this 
stage,  the  semi-transparent  ring  either  becomes 
transparent,  in  which  case  the  marginal  ring  almost 
disappears,  or  else  loses  all  its  green,  remaining  a 
pale  buff  and  retaining  its  marginal  ring.  Often 
several  adjacent  spots  unite  and  form  larger  ones, 
but  the  centers  of  the  uniting  spots  always  remain 
distinct.  Spots  which  have  become  entirely  trans- 
parent except  at  the  center  may  be  included  in  the 
enlarging  spots,  remaining  visible  as  transparent 
areas  in  the  large  buff  spot.  From  the  appearance 
of  the  small,  sunken  areas  in  the  center  of  the  spots 
many  erroneous  views  as  to  the  relation  of  insects 
to  the  disease  have  arisen. 

A  few  days  of  damp,  cloudy  weather  will  cause 
the  development  of  reproductive  bodies  upon  many 
of  the  spots.  These  appear  to  the  naked  eye  as  in- 
numerable blackish,  tiny,  hair-hke  points.  Each 
spot  is  capable  of  producing  thousands  of  the  spores, 
and  each  spore  is  able,  under  the  proper  conditions, 
to  germinate  and  grow,  and  in  so  doing  infect  a 
healthy  leaf  or  a  healthy  portion  of  the  same  leaf. 
The  spores,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are  wafted  about  in 
the  air,  and  are  constantly  settling  down  on  the 
plants,  where  they  only  await  favorable  conditions 
to  grow  into  the  leaf  and  produce  other  spots.    We 


SPOT,   OR  SPOT  DISEASE 


have  made  experiments  which  show  that  in  ten 
hours  of  one  night,  under  ordinary  conditions 
existing  in  a  greenhouse,   fifty  to  sixty  of  these 


54. — Spot  disease  artificially  produced 

spores  will  settle  on  a  space  three  inches  in  diameter. 
Every  spore  is  able  to  produce  a  spot,  and  the  only 
reason  that  they  do  not  do  so  is  probably  because 
the  conditions   are   unfavorable   for   development. 


178  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said  that  the 
more  spotted  leaves  there  are  in  a  house  the  more 
chances  there  are  for  infection.  Here,  therefore,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  points  in  keeping  the 
disease  in  check.  Every  spot  must  be  removed  and 
burned  as  soon  as  it  is  seen,  and  in  no  case  must  the 
diseased  leaves  be  thrown  into  the  walk  or  behind 
the  pipes  to  rot  and  spread  the  fungus.  When  a  leaf 
is  badly  affected  it  is  best  to  remove  it  entirely,  but 
when  there  are  only  a  few  spots  on  a  leaf,  these 
can  be  pinched  or  cut  out  and  the  rest  of  the 
leaf  saved. 

It  is  folly  to  postpone  this  work,  for  every  day 
adds  to  the  chances  against  getting  the  disease  under 
control.  We  do  not  advocate  the  appHcation  of  any 
fungicide.  We  have  tried  many  things,  including 
Bordeaux  mixture,  lime,  sulphur,  ammoniacal  solu- 
tion of  copper  carbonate,  etc.,  but  have  never  yet 
found  any  good  evidence  that  they  are  beneficial. 

In  addition  to  the  strictest  attention  in  keeping 
the  plants  clean,  no  effort  should  be  spared  to  fur- 
nish the  best  conditions  for  growth.  Attend  rigidly 
to  watering,  ventilating  and  firing.  Keep  all  water 
from  the  fohage,  for  wherever  the  leaves  stay  wet 
for  seventeen  to  twenty  hours  successively,  spot  is 
pretty  sure  to  develop.  From  the  twentieth  of 
August  until  the  twentieth  of  November  is  the 
period  in  which  spot  is  most  to  be  feared  and 
watched.    If  the  plants  can  be  successfully  brought 


SPOT,   OR  SPOT  DISEASE  I  79 

through  this  period  they  are  practically  safe,  unless 
unusual  conditions  arise. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  how 
important  it  is  to  have  the  plants  where  they  will  at 
all  times  be  under  control.  In  frames  and  in  fields, 
this  is  practically  impossible,  as  there  they  are  con- 
stantly exposed  to  rain  and  dew.  Much  benefit  may 
be  derived,  however,  by  shading  the  plants  in  some 
way.  Rain  does  not  seem  to  give  as  much  trouble 
as  dew.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  rain 
washes  the  spores  from  the  leaves  before  they  have 
an  opportunity  to  germinate,  while  in  the  case  of 
dew  the  moisture  comes  on  so  gradually  that  the 
very  best  conditions  are  furnished  for  the  germina- 
tion and  development  of  the  fungus.  A  shading  of 
laths,  or  a  screen  of  any  kind,  will  often  be  sufficient 
to  protect  the  plants  from  dew,  and  thus  in  a 
measure  ward  off  the  spot.  However,  it  is  of  the 
highest  importance  that  the  plants  be  under  cover 
as  soon  after  the  middle  of  August  as  possible;  for 
wherever  they  are  left  outside,  the  danger  from 
infection  is  very  much  increased. 

Everything  that  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the 
foliage  must  be  avoided.  Too  much  fertilizer  will 
often  cause  a  tender  growth  of  leaves,  and  when  in 
such  condition  spot  is  very  apt  to  appear  if  several 
days  of  warm,  cloudy  weather  come  on.  One  of  the 
greatest  sources  of  injury  is  tobacco  in  the  form  of 
smoke.    Many  growers  use  tobacco  for  combating 


l80  DISEASES  AND  INSECT    ENEMIES 

insects,  but  in  our  experience  it  is  found  very  dan- 
gerous, and  apt  to  cause  serious  trouble.  The  nico- 
tine in  the  tobacco  has  the  power  of  weakening  the 
tissues  to  such  an  extent  that  the  spot  fungus  finds  it 
an  easy  matter  to  infect  the  foliage.  A  light  fumi- 
gation seldom  produces  any  injury,  but  where 
several  fumigations  are  made  in  close  succession 
damage  is  almost  sure  to  result.  Spraying  the  leaves 
with  tobacco  water  is  apt  to  produce  similar  effects, 
and  for  this  reason  we  have  abandoned  the  use  of 
tobacco  entirely. 

Much  evidence  could  be  adduced  to  show  the 
deleterious  action  of  tobacco,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
to  go  into  details  upon  this  matter,  as  one  or  two 
examples  will  suffice.  In  one  instance  green  aphis 
was  causing  considerable  trouble  in  our  houses,  and 
in  order  to  destroy  it  we  fumigated  heavily  with 
tobacco  for  two  or  three  nights.  Immediately  fol- 
lowing the  fumigation  spot  appeared  to  an  alarming 
extent,  and  it  required  several  months  of  hard  work 
and  extra  precautions  to  get  rid  of  it.  We  did  not 
realize  at  the  time  the  connection  of  the  fumigation 
with  the  trouble,  but  afterward  it  was  brought  to 
our  attention  in  a  number  of  other  ways,  and  has 
been  proved  many  times  since. 

Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  if  careful  attention 
has  been  given  to  cultural  work  throughout  the  en- 
tire season,  little  trouble  need  be  apprehended  from 
this  disease.    It  is  only  where  the  grower  has  been 


WILT,   OR  STEM  ROT  I  01 

careless  in  certain  directions  that  trouble  is  likely  to 
ensue.  Many  have  the  unfortunate  habit  of  neglect- 
ing little  details  here  and  there,  and  then  when  the 
disease  appears  making  a  gigantic  effort  to  get  rid 
of  it.  If  attention  had  been  given  to  minor  matters 
throughout  the  entire  season  the  chances  are  that 
the  disease  would  not  have  appeared,  and  that  there 
would  have  been  no  serious  loss  in  consequence. 
When  the  disease  has  reached  a  severe  form,  the 
flowers  are  practically  worthless,  and  the  only  thing 
that  can  be  done  is  to  put  forth  every  eff'ort  to  get 
the  plants  into  a  healthy  condition  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. Briefly,  therefore:  Keep  the  plants  at  all 
times  in  a  healthy  growiiig  coiidition.  Rigidly 
destroy  all  diseased  parts  oj  the  plant.  Never  apply 
water  to  the  leaves  in  such  a  way  that  they  cannot  dry 
in  from  jour  to  five  hours.  Keep  the  leaves  free  from 
dew.  Avoid  fumigation  with  tobacco,  but  ij  tobacco 
is  used  make  the  smoke  as  light  as  possible. 

Wilt,  or  Stem  Rot.  Next  in  importance  to 
spot  is  wilt,  or  stem  rot.  In  fact,  in  many  sections 
the  stem  rot  causes  more  trouble  than  the  spot.  The 
disease  is,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  the  stems,  although 
it  frequently  attacks  the  roots,  but  it  never  produces 
the  injury  there  that  it  does  when  the  stems  are 
afl'ected.  We  have  rarely  seen  a  plant  whollj'  free 
from  this  trouble,  although  in  many  instances  it 
does   not  produce   any   appreciable   injury.      This 


1 82 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


disease  is  also  due  to  a  fungus,  which  lives  in  the 
tissues,   and   about   which   comparatively   little   is 


55. — Rooted  Campbell  cuttings,  showing  effects  oj  Tbielavia  on  the 
roots.     Plant  on  left  diseased,  plant  on  right  healthy 

known.     So  far,   we  know  it   chiefly   through   its 
eff'ects,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  relation 


WILT,   OR  STEM  ROT  183 

of  the  particular  species  to  the  disease  in  question. 
The  fungus  is  known  as  Thielavia  basicola  Zopf,  and 
it  attacks  other  plants  besides  the  violet.  It  un- 
doubtedly is  able  to  live  at  certain  times  on  decaying 
organic  matter;  in  fact,  it  is  found  in  portions  of 
leaves,  straw,  and  other  materials  occurring  in  the 
sand  and  soil.  From  the  fact  that  it  occurs  on  bits 
of  decaying  leaves  it  is  important  to  have  the 
propagating  sand  absolutely  free  from  organic 
matter.  Infection  in  a  great  many  cases  takes 
place  in  the  propagating  bed  and  soil.  The  cutting 
may  root  readily,  and  to  the  casual  observer  may 
appear  sound,  but  it  is  infected,  nevertheless,  and 
later  on  will  show  the  trouble. 

Plants  affected  with  this  disease  may  make  a 
good  growth  throughout  the  Summer  and  show  no 
evidence  of  trouble  until  September,  or  perhaps  Oc- 
tober, when  they  will  wilt  more  or  less  during  the 
warmer  portions  of  the  day,  and  revive  during  the 
night.  This  may  go  on  for  a  week  or  more,  but 
finally  they  wilt  completely  and  die.  An  examina- 
tion of  such  plants  shows  that  the  main  stem  has 
been  practically  girdled  by  the  fungus,  and  that 
both  the  water  and  the  food  supply  have  thereby 
been  effectually  cut  off.  The  alternate  wilting  and 
reviving  of  the  plants  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
fungus  does  its  work  slowly,  and  thus  it  requires 
considerable  time  to  completely  encircle  the  stem. 
The  fact  of  the  matter  is,  a  plant  of  this  kind  is 


184  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

probably  infected  early  in  its  life,  and  for  months 
the  fungus  slowly  grows,  gradually  destroying  cell 
after  cell,  until  finally  the  plant  collapses. 

Unquestionably  another  fruitful  source  of  in- 
fection comes  about  through  the  practice  of  pulling 
off  partly  decayed  leaves  from  the  young  plants  as 
they  are  growing.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  keep 
the  plants  clean,  but  in  all  cases  a  knife  should  be 
used  for  trimming  both  leaves  and  cuttings.  If  a 
leaf  is  pulled  off  it  frequently  leaves  a  scar  on  the 
stem,  and  this  scar  offers  an  excellent  opening  for 
the  fungus,  which  is  likely  to  be  present  in  the  soil 
or  on  decaying  bits  of  organic  matter  surrounding 
the  plant.  If  the  leaf  is  cut  off,  leaving  a  short 
stem,  the  wound  heals  before  the  fungus  has  an 
opportunity  to  gain  entrance. 

The  method  of  propagation  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  trouble,  and  for  this  reason  we  have 
been  profuse  in  our  statements  regarding  the  im- 
portance of  using  only  vigorous  stock.  The  practice 
of  dividing  the  plants  carries  some  of  the  disease 
over  each  year,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  if  this  is  kept 
up  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  the  stock  will 
become  so  weakened  as  to  be  practically  worthless. 
The  advantage  of  rooting  cuttings  in  sand  that  is 
absolutely  clean  is  also  apparent,  for  in  such  cases 
the  fungus,  which  might  be  in  the  young  roots  taken 
from  the  soil,  is  eliminated.  Where  the  plants  are 
simply  divided,  and  even  where  they  are  removed  as 


NANISM,   OR  STUNTEDNESS  IO5 

offshoots  early  in  the  Spring,  the  young  roots  often 
show  the  disease.  The  difficulty,  however,  is  most 
serious  where  the  fungus  has  attacked  the  stem,  for 
in  such  cases  the  plant  will  eventually  succumb. 
When  a  rootlet  is  once  affected  it  may  be  destroyed 
and  still  the  working  of  the  plant'  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  seriously  interfered  with.  Continuous  use 
of  the  same  soil  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  propa- 
gating the  disease.  The  longer  the  soil  is  used,  of 
course,  the  more  decaying  roots  there  will  be  pres- 
ent, and  the  more  chances  for  infection  through  such 
material. 

Summarizing,  therefore,  the  principal  ways  of 
holding  this  disease  in  check  are  careful  attention  to 
the  propagation  of  stock,  extreme  care  as  to  the  kind 
of  sand  and  soil  employed,  and  the  exercise  of  rigid 
precautions  in  the  matter  of  examination  of  plants 
before  they  are  finally  set  in  the  beds. 

Nanism,  or  Stuntedness.  The  dwarfing  and 
stunting  of  a  plant  is  not  generally  looked  upon  as  a 
disease.  Nevertheless,  so  far  as  we  are  concerned, 
it  is  a  true  disease,  because  it  has  a  marked  effect  in 
reducing  the  income.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
among  a  number  of  violet  plants  some  which  show 
quite  different  characters  from  the  ordinary,  so  far 
as  size  is  concerned.  In  such  cases  the  whole  plant  is 
more  or  less  dwarfed.  The  leaves  are  small,  the  leaf 
stalks  are  short,   and   the  offshoots  which  go  to 


i86 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


make  up  the  crown  are  also  short.  When  such  a 
plant  blooms  the  flower  stalks  are  also  short,  and 
the  flowers,  in  most  cases,  are  small.  Of  course,  this 
dwarfing   or  stuntedness   varies   much   in   degree. 


56. — Plants  stunted  by  strong  fertilizer 

Some  plants  will  not  be  more  than  one-fourth  the 
normal  size,  while  there  will  be  all  grades  between 
this  and  where  the  dwarfing  is  so  shght  as  to  be 


NANISM,   OR  STUNTEDNESS  1 87 

hardly  recognizable.  An  examination  of  such  plants 
reveals  the  fact  that  no  external  agencies  in  the 
nature  of  fungi  or  insects  have  caused  the  trouble. 
The  roots  appear  to  be  free  from  organisms  of  all 
kinds,  and  the  stems  and  leaves  are  also  free,  except 
in  some  cases  where  red  spider  may  be  present, 
but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  account  for  the 
dwarfed  growth  of  the  plants. 

This  dwarfing  or  stunting  may  be  brought 
about  by  a  number  of  causes.  Anything  in  fact 
which  has  a  tendency  to  check  growth  may  result  in 
permanent  dwarfing,  but  it  is  particularly  at  the 
time  when  the  plant  is  young  that  injury  is  likely  to 
occur.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  cuttings  when 
taken  from  the  parent  plant  are  not  fully  mature, 
and  if  rooted  in  sand  or  soil  at  this  time  they  will 
never  make  as  strong  or  vigorous  plants  as  those 
made  from  fully  ripened  wood.  Again,  the  wood 
may  become  so  hard  that  its  growth  is  to  a  certain 
extent  fixed.  Such  a  cutting  would  also  be  apt 
to  produce  a  dwarfed  plant,  for  the  reason  that  the 
check  which  it  has  received  can  never  be  entirely 
overcome.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wood  may  be  of 
the  proper  nature,  and  the  cutting,  in  all  other  re- 
spects, good,  and  yet  in  handling  after  it  is  separated 
from  the  parent  plant,  certain  checks  may  be 
brought  about  which  will  result  in  permanent  in- 
jury and  a  dwarfed  or  stunted  plant.  Too  much  or 
too  little  water  in  the  propagating  bed  may  bring 


l88  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

about  these  results.  Lack  of  water  is  often  a  fruitful 
source  of  injury  in  this  connection.  The  plants  do 
not  necessarily  have  to  be  dried  out  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  they  wilt,  but  the  gradual  withholding  of  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  has  a  tendency  to  cause 
all  the  growing  cells  to  assume  a  fixed  form,  and 
from  this  they  never  recover,  even  after  they  are 
moved  into  more  favorable  conditions.  After  the 
plants  are  rooted,  furthermore,  injuries  of  the  same 
kind  may  occur. 

It  may  happen  that  in  planting,  warm  weather 
comes  on,  and  as  a  result  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the 
plants  supphed  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  moisture, 
and  the  roots,  in  consequence,  will  be  injured.  This 
results  finally  in  a  permanent  check,  from  which  the 
plant  never  fully  recovers.  Furthermore,  if  plants 
are  exposed  to  too  much  bright  sunhght  they  are  apt 
to  become  stunted  on  account  of  the  intensity  of 
both  heat  and  light.  This  shows  the  necessity  of 
some  kind  of  shade  through  the  growing  season,  for 
the  violet  naturally  does  not  grow  in  the  open,  but, 
as  a  rule,  is  found  in  shady,  moist  places,  away  from 
the  dire  effects  of  the  sun. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  cause 
of  the  trouble,  the  means  of  preventing  it  will  be- 
come apparent.  Every  effort  should  be  put  forth  to 
keep  the  plant  in  a  thoroughly  healthy  growing  con- 
dition from  the  time  it  is  started  until  it  is  thrown 
out  in  the  Spring.   No  checks  of  any  kind  should  be 


SCALD,   OR  EDGE  BURN  iSp 

allowed,  for  the  more  there  are  of  these  the  more 
likely  is  the  output  of  flowers  to  be  reduced.  This 
only  emphasizes  the  statement  already  made,  that 
diseases  are  largely  the  result  of  improper  methods 
of  culture  and  the  overlooking  of  important  facts  in 
regard  to  handling  the  plants. 


57. — Edge  burn,  brought  on  by  cold  soil 

Scald,  or  Edge  Burn.  This  disease,  as  a  rule, 
is  not  serious,  although  under  certain  conditions  it 
may  become  quite  troublesome  and  materially  affect 
the  yield  of  flowers.  It  manifests  itself  first  by  the 
edges  of  the  leaves  turning  a  yellowish  green.  A  few 
days  later  this  color  may  gradually  fade  out  to  al- 
most white,  and  eventually  the  entire  edge  of  the 
leaf  will  become  a  papery  whitish  color.  The  trouble 
is  usually  confined  to  a  rim  running  around  the 


ipO  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

outer  edge  of  the  leaf.  This  rim  varies  in  width  from 
one-sixteenth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  Under  ex- 
ceptional circumstances  nearly  the  entire  leaf  may  be 
involved,  and  there  is  then  left  only  a  small  green 
area  in  the  center.  Once  the  injury  is  done  there 
is,  of  course,  no  remedy,  and  all  efforts  should  be 
made  to  keep  the  plants  in  such  a  condition  that  the 
trouble  cannot  be  brought  on. 

One  serious  after  effect  of  the  difficulty  is  the 
liability  of  the  plant  to  be  attacked  by  a  number  of 
species  of  fungi.  Although  fungi  are  not  the  direct 
cause  of  the  trouble,  there  are  many  species  which 
will  attack  partly  dead  tissues  and  from  them  extend 
into  the  healthy  parts  of  the  leaf.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon, therefore,  to  find  plants  affected  with  this 
scald,  or  edge  burn,  collapsing  from  the  effects  of 
fungi  which  have  first  attacked  the  diseased  por- 
tions and  through  them  have  gained  sufficient 
strength  to  destroy  the  unaffected  parts  of  the 
leaves. 

A  species  o^Botryiis  is  very  apt  to  work  on  such 
affected  parts,  especially  if  the  weather  is  damp  and 
the  sun  does  not  shine  for  several  days  in  succession. 
The  tissues,  in  such  cases,  get  soft  and  slimy,  and  it 
is  very  difficult  to  keep  the  plants  clean. 

The  trouble  may  be  brought  on  by  a  number  of 
causes.  It  is  often  the  result  of  using  strong  liquid 
manure,  either  organic,  or  in  the  form  of  chemical 
fertilizers.     Such  liquids,  when  applied  to  the  soil 


58. — Leaves  and  flowers  injured  by  Botrytis 


192  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

and  roots,  seem  to  temporarily  check  the  latter  to 
such  an  extent  that  they  cannot  take  up  water  or 
food.  In  case  the  sun  is  warm  at  such  times,  and 
the  light  bright,  the  young  and  tender  portions  of 
the  leaves,  namely,  the  edges,  will  not  have  sufficient 
moisture  to  serve  for  growth.  If  these  conditions 
continue,  the  moisture  stored  in  the  cells  is  used  up, 
and  then  the  latter  collapse  as  a  result.  The  disease 
may  be  brought  on  by  allowing  the  soil  to  get  too 
cold.  It  is  quite  common  to  see  plants  next  to  the 
outer  walls  of  the  house  showing  this  difficulty.  This 
is  especially  the  case  where  there  is  no  air  space 
between  the  bed  proper  and  the  outer  wall.  The  cold 
from  the  outside  is  sufficient  to  stop  the  proper  work- 
ing of  the  roots,  and  in  consequence  the  parts  of  the 
plant  above  ground  suffer  as  described. 

In  certain  types  of  heavy  soils,  that  is,  soils 
containing  too  much  water,  the  trouble  is  likely  to 
occur.  It  must  be  understood  that  the  roots  of  plants 
require  air  as  well  as  water.  If  all  or  nearly  all  the 
air  spaces  in  the  soil  are  filled  up  with  water  the  roots 
will  suffocate  and  the  plants,  in  consequence,  suffer. 
The  difficulties  resulting  from  cold  soil  can  easily  be 
overcome,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  rarely  found  ex- 
cept around  the  edges  of  the  house.  A  board  set  in  so 
as  to  intervene  between  the  wall  and  the  soil  outside 
is  often  sufficient  to  prevent  the  trouble.  It  is  better, 
however,  to  have  two  boards,  with  a  space  of  four 
or  five  inches  between.    This  allows  an  air  space, 


OEDEMA,   OR  WART  DISEASE  1 93 

and  the  air  in  the  house  is  sufficiently  warm  to  keep 
the  soil  in  the  beds  next  to  the  board  warm  enough 
for  root  growth. 

By  attending  to  the  conditions  mentioned,  look- 
ing carefully  after  watering,  and  seeing  that  the  soil 
is  not  too  heavy,  little  trouble  need  be  feared  from 
this  disease. 

Oedema,  or  Wart  Disease.  This  trouble  often 
proves  quite  serious,  but  is  easily  kept  under  control 
by  the  proper  handhng  of  the  plants.  The  affected 
plants  show  wart-hke  growths  over  the  leaves,  and 
these  are  usually  of  a  brownish  color.  These  warty 
growths  vary  in  size,  some  of  them  being  quite  small 
and  others  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  high.  The  corky  growths  are 
not  confined  wholly  to  the  leaves.  In  fact,  they  fre- 
quently occur  on  the  leaf  stalks,  and  sometimes  on 
the  flower  stalks  also.  It  is  found  that  where  these 
warty  formations  are  developed  the  whole  leaf  is  in 
a  pecuhar  condition.  It  is  brittle,  and  when  taken 
in  the  hand  cracks  very  easily.  The  leaves,  in  other 
words,  instead  of  having  a  live,  elastic  feel,  appear 
to  the  touch  to  be  dry  like  a  shaving,  and  when  bent 
will  break  with  a  cracking  noise.  Wherever  a  break 
of  this  kind  occurs  the  corky  growth  appears  in  time. 
The  corky  formations  may  also  develop  wherever  an 
insect  punctures  the  leaves.  The  punctures  of 
aphides  and  the  bites  of  spiders  cause  many  of  these 


94 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


swellings.  When  the  plants  get  into  this  condition  it 
is  practically  unfit  for  flowering,  and  when  badly  dis- 
eased it  is  very  difficult  to  ever  get  it  into  proper 
.shape  again.    The  trouble  is  one  that  is  brought  on 


59- 


-Oeder 


or  warl  disease 


gradually  by  improper  relations  between  the 
moisture  of  the  soil,  moisture  of  the  air,  and  the 
light. 


OEDEMA,   OR  WART  DISEASE  1 95 

Where  plants  are  mulched  and  the  soil  kept 
constantly  wet  the  trouble  is  likely  to  follow,  es- 
pecially if  heavy  shading  is  adopted.  Where  the 
plant  is  grown  for  some  time  under  these  conditions 
all  of  its  tissues  get  into  a  dropsical  or  oedemic 
state,  and  it  needs  only  an  injury  of  some  kind  to 
cause  the  formation  of  the  w  art-like  growths.  If  the 
conditions  are  very  favorable,  injuries  are  not 
necessary  for  the  w^art-Iike  growths,  as  they  will  be 
produced  b}^  the  plant  without  intervention  of  any- 
thing of  this  kind.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
plant  is  really  making  an  abnormal  effort  at  growth, 
and  the  w^arts  are  nothing  more  than  excessive 
growth  of  the  cells  at  particular  points.  This 
trouble  seldom  occurs  in  houses  properly  hghted 
and  ventilated.  In  underground  pits,  and  in  out- 
door frames  where  heavy  shading  is  used,  it  is  apt 
to  occur,  especially  if  the  practice  of  mulching  is 
adopted. 

By  paying  proper  attention  to  hght,  ventila- 
tion and  watering,  httle  or  no  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced from  the  trouble.  In  case  it  is  seen  that 
plants  are  becoming  oedemic  it  will  be  necessary  to 
modify  at  once  the  surroundings  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  admit  more  hght  to  the  leaves  and  more  air 
to  the  soil.  It  will  not  do,  however,  to  bring  about 
these  changes  too  rapidly.  Light  should  be  gradu- 
ally given,  and  the  amount  of  water  added  to  the 
soil  should  be  slowly  diminished.    If  the  change  is 


196 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


too  abrupt,  serious  consequences  may  result,  as  the 
plant,  having  been  grown  under  such  abnormal 
conditions,  is  not  able  to  withstand  the  unusual 


60. — Example  oj  crown  rot 


exposure  to  bright  hght  and  dry  soil  which  the  sud- 
den change  might  bring  about. 


CROWN  ROT  197 

Crown  Rot.  This  trouble  is  very  apt  to 
occur  after  the  opening  of  the  blooming  season,  es- 
pecially if  the  crowns  are  heavy  and  too  much  water 
is  used  for  syringing  or  for  other  purposes.  It  is 
often  found  in  houses  made  of  sash,  where  the  drips 
keep  the  crowns  of  the  plant  constantly  wet  for  days 
at  a  time.  In  such  cases  the  inner  or  youngest  leaves 
of  the  crown  become  softened,  and  through  the  ac- 
tion of  several  species  of  fungi  are  in  a  short  time 
reduced  to  a  soft,  slimy  mass. 

The  trouble  is  sometimes  quite  serious,  as  all 
the  young  inner  growth  is  destroyed  and  the  flower 
buds,  of  course,  perish  with  them.  The  difficulty, 
as  already  pointed  out,  is  brought  about  largely  by 
the  improper  use  of  water.  Of  course,  in  houses 
where  there  are  many  drips  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
the  crowns  dry.  As  soon  as  the  trouble  is  noticed, 
however,  the  diseased  leaves  should  be  cleaned  out, 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  remaining  leaves  pushed 
apart,  and  the  crowns  opened  so  as  to  admit  hght 
and  air.  Where  the  crowns  are  very  heavy  some 
advantage  may  result  by  trimming  out  part  of  the 
leaves,  but  this,  of  course,  will  more  or  less  inter- 
fere with  the  flowering  of  the  plant. 

A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  air-slaked  lime  and 
flowers  of  sulphur  is  frequently  beneficial  in  cases 
of  this  kind.  The  two  materials  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  thrown  into  the  crown  with  con- 
siderable force  so  as  to  reach  the  rotting  parts.  Lime 


iqS  diseases  and  insect  enemies 

alone  is  beneficial,  but  the  sulphur  has  a  tendency  to 
destroy  the  fungi  present  and  in  a  measure  to  check 
the  growth  of  other  organisms.  In  properly  con- 
structed houses,  where  the  drip  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum, httle  difficulty  is  ever  experienced  from  this 
disease.  The  trouble  is,  of  course,  much  more  apt 
to  be  serious  where  the  plants  are  overgrown,  and 
for  this  reason  the  directions  given  in  regard  to 
proper  time  of  planting  and  the  handling  of  the 
plants  should  be  closely  followed. 

Root  Galls.  Although  this  disease  is  caused 
by  a  minute  parasitic  worm,  it  is  classified  with 
diseases  for  the  reason  that  it  affects  the  entire 
plant,  and  could  not  be  properly  treated  under  the 
heading  of  insects.  Plants  badly  infested  with  nema- 
todes are  apt  to  show  a  dwarfed  growth,  the  leaves 
being  small  and  the  leaf  stalks  and  flower  stalks 
short.  This  is  what  might  be  expected  from  the  fact 
that  these  minute  parasites  attack  the  roots,  and, 
through  their  action  on  them,  cut  off  the  food  sup- 
ply. The  infested  plants,  upon  being  removed  from 
the  soil,  show  on  the  rootlets  innumerable  small 
nodules,  varying  in  size  from  a  pin  head  to  a  large 
pea.  Although  nematodes  are  considered  by  some 
writers  as  a  great  menace  to  violet  growing,  we  have 
never  seen  any  serious  injury  produced  by  them.  In 
fact,  our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  nema- 
todes, instead  of  being  actually  injurious,  are  more 


ROOT  GALLS 


199 


apt  to  be  beneficial.  We  cannot  speak,  of  course, 
of  the  effects  of  nematodes  where  the  soil  has  been 
allowed  to  become  full  of  them  through  neglect  and 
other  causes.   Where  the  soil  has  not  been  properly 


61. —  f^oot  Galls 

handled,  or  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  in  use  for 
several  years,  nematodes  are  very  apt  to  infest  it  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  become  a  serious  pest.  Ordi- 
narily, however,  where  the  soil  is  changed  every 


200  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

year,  and  where  new  plants  are  put  in  each  season, 
the  nematodes  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to 
prove  really  serious.  It  often  happens  that  some  of 
the  best  flowering  plants  will  show  quantities  of 
nematodes  on  the  roots  at  the  close  of  the  season.  So 
far  as  appearances  go,  such  plants  show  no  indica- 
tion whatever  of  diseases,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the 
effect  of  the  nematodes  it  is  very  probable  that 
vegetative  growth  would  have  been  so  excessive  as 
to  have  interfered  seriously  with  the  formation  of 
flower  buds.  We  look,  therefore,  on  nematodes  as  in 
a  measure  being  able  to  keep  the  proper  balance  be- 
tween root  growth  and  leaf  growth.  They  act  partly 
as  root  pruners,  so  to  speak,  and  by  their  action  have 
a  tendency  to  cause  the  plants  to  throw  their  energy 
toward  flowering  rather  than  toward  leaf  produc- 
tion. We  would  not  have  it  inferred  from  this  that 
we  advocate  encouraging  the  attacks  of  nematodes, 
but  we  do  not  believe  it  desirable  to  go  to  any  great 
expense,  such  as  steaming  the  soil,  for  the  purpose 
of  holding  them  in  check.  If  the  soil  is  properly 
handled,  and  allowed  to  freeze  thoroughly  once  or 
twice  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  nematodes  are  probably  destroyed.  How- 
ever, no  matter  what  action  of  this  kind  is  taken 
there  will  always  be  some  present,  but  they  need  not 
cause  any  serious  uneasiness. 

We  have  experimented  with  sterihzed  soil  and 
have  been  able  to  grow  plants  practically  free  from 


BUD  NEMATODES  201 

the  worms.  Such  plants  made  a  most  remarkable 
growth  and  the  leaf  development  was  so  great  that 
it  seriously  interfered  with  the  production  of  flowers. 
Furthermore,  we  found  that  the  plants  were  making 
such  rapid  growth  and  were  becoming  so  tender  and 
soft  at  the  approach  of  the  spot  season  that  great 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  warding  off  this  disease. 
On  the  whole,  this  question  may  be  summed  up  by 
saying  that  by  proper  attention  to  the  care  of  the 
soil  and  of  the  plants  little  trouble  need  be  appre- 
hended from  nematodes,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  adopt  the  expensive  method  of  sterilizing  the  soil. 

Bud  Nematodes.  Within  recent  years  a  very 
serious  disease  has  appeared  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  affecting  all  kinds  of  violets,  but  particu- 
larly the  double  forms.  The  disease  is  one  that 
has  been  present  for  a  number  of  years,  but  owing 
to  its  obscure  nature  and  cause  has  been  generally 
overlooked,  the  trouble  being  attributed  to  other 
causes  in  all  probabihty.  The  disease  manifests 
itself  by  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  crown 
of  the  plant,  and,  of  course,  if  no  crowns  are  formed 
no  flowers  are  produced.  The  plants  "  go  blind," 
and  although  they  make  feeble  growth,  they  are 
practically  worthless.  Frequently  the  disease  is 
found  in  houses,  aff"ecting  only  a  plant  here  and 
there.  Then,  again,  it  may  be  more  or  less  com- 
mon on  all  plants,  afl'ecting  some,  of  course,  more 


202  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

than  others.  It  can  be  noticed  on  very  young 
plants,  even  on  cuttings  before  they  are  well 
rooted.  The  disease  is  produced  by  a  minute  eel 
worm  or  nematode,  similar  to  the  one  which 
causes  the  root  galls.  The  Hfe  history  of  this  small, 
parasitic  worm  is  obscure.  It  is  found  abundantly 
in  the  young  buds,  and  through  its  action  on  them 
causes  the  growing  tip  to  abort,  thus  producing  the 
so-called  blind  crowns.  In  the  South,  it  is  one  of 
the  worst  enemies  now  confronting  the  violet 
grower,  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
keep  it  in  check.  Experiments  that  have  been  made 
lead  us  to  beheve  that  very  Httle  benefit  is  to  be 
derived  from  the  appHcation  of  any  substance  such 
as  lime,  sulphur,  etc.  The  nematode  is  so  thor- 
oughly protected  by  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  that  it 
cannot  be  reached  by  any  such  treatment.  Neither 
can  it  be  affected  by  fumigations  or  by  spraying 
with  Hquids.  Some  success  has  been  secured  by 
the  application  of  a  weak  solution  of  formahn  or 
formaldehyde,  but  a  continuous  use  of  this  prepara- 
tion injures  the  crown  so  that  the  treatment  may 
cause  more  trouble  than  the  disease.  The  only 
suggestion  that  can  be  given  at  this  time  in  the 
matter  of  treatment  is  to  exercise  most  rigid  care 
in  making  cuttings,  and  to  see  to  it  that  no  stock 
is  taken  from  a  diseased  crown.  It  is  best  in  all 
cases  where  the  plants  become  diseased  with  nema- 
todes to  pull  them  out  at  once  and  burn  them.     This 


RED  SPIDER  203 

may  seem  like  a  hardship  at  first,  but  it  is  the  only 
safe  plan  to  follow.  By  constantly  weeding  out 
the  diseased  plants  and  carefully  selecting  the 
stock,  it  is  beheved  practicable,  in  a  measure,  to 
keep  the  disease  in  check.  The  necessity  and  im- 
portance for  doing  this  will  become  apparent  when 
it  is  known  that  evidence  points  strongly  to  the 
fact  that  the  nematodes  may  be  scattered  from 
plant  to  plant  by  the  hands,  either  while  picking 
the  flowers  or  cleaning  the  plants.  Attention  has 
already  been  called,  under  the  subject  of  propaga- 
tion, to  the  method  of  taking  plants  which  have 
already  rooted  from  the  crowns,  and  setting  out 
such  plants  directly  in  soiL 

INSECTS  AND  OTHER  PESTS. 

Red  Spider.  This  httle  pest,  which  is  really 
not  a  spider  but  a  mite,  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies 
with  which  violet  growers  have  to  deaL  It  is  present 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and  is  ready  at  all  tirres 
to  begin  its  destructive  work  if  allowed  to  do  so. 
It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  damage  these  mites  do 
to  plants,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  seldom  that  any 
plants  are  entirely  free  from  them,  and  no  fair  com- 
parisons can  therefore  be  made.  Ordinarily,  when 
there  are  only  a  few  of  the  mites  present,  the  plants 
show  no  external  evidence  of  their  attacks.  As  the 
numbers  increase,  however,  the  leaves  gradually  be- 
come yellowish  and  dwarfed,  and  eventually  the 


204  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

whole  plant  succumbs  unless  action  is  taken  to  rid 
it  of  the  pest. 

Cuttings  or  young  rooted  plants  are  especially 
liable  to  be  seriously  injured  by  spider.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  Spring  after  the  growing  season 
starts.  The  mites  multiply  rapidly  at  this  time,  and 
unless  the  plants  are  carefully  watched  they  will 
soon  be  so  badly  infested  that  it  will  be  exceedingly 
difficult  to  restore  them  to  a  normal  condition.  In 
Jactf  it  is  questionable  if  a  plant  once  badly  infested 
with  spiders  can  ever  be  restored  to  the  normal  state. 
The  mites  by  their  action  slowly  reduce  vitality,  and 
not  only  one,  but  all  functions  of  the  plant  are  prob- 
ably more  or  less  affected  by  them.  In  this  way  the 
whole  nature  of  the  plant  is  more  or  less  changed, 
as  it  is  really  suffering  from  a  slow  starvation.  It 
will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  ultimate  effects  will 
be  a  checking  or  stunting  of  some  kind,  and,  as 
already  pointed  out,  everything  of  this  nature  must 
be  carefully  avoided. 

On  plants  which  have  been  grown  the  entire 
Winter  in  a  house,  or  even  in  frames,  the  mite  some- 
times develops  to  such  an  extent  in  late  Spring  as  to 
entirely  destroy  all  growth.  Millions  of  spiders  will 
be  found  on  the  foliage,  and  their  webs,  which  are 
rarely  seen  under  ordinary  conditions,  stretch  from 
plant  to  plant,  and  spiders  of  all  sizes  will  be  found 
passing  rapidly  over  them  and  congregating  in 
swarms  like  bees. 


RED  SPIDER 


205 


An  examination  of  the  leaves  of  violets  infested 
with  spiders  show  mites  of  various  sizes,  and  the 
eggs  from  which  they  are  hatched  will  also  be  found 


62. — Red  Spider   {magnified  several   hundred  diameters) 


present  in  varying  numbers.  Ordinarily,  the  eggs 
are  spherical  and  almost  colorless.  Under  a  slight 
magnification  they  appear  like  little  globules  of  dew, 
but  upon  touching  them  they  are  found  to  have  rela- 


206 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


tively  firm  walls.  The  eggs  are  not  hatched  for 
eight  or  ten  days  after  being  deposited,  the  length  of 
time  depending  in  a  large  measure  on  warmth  and 
other    surroundings.       When    newly    hatched    the 


63. 


-Nozzle  used  in  spraying  plants  Jor  the  destruction 
oj  red  spider 


spiders  are  very  hght  in  color;  in  fact,  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  masses  of  web  and  the 
yellowish  portions  of  the  affected  leaf.  As  the  spiders 


RED  SPIDER  207 

grow  older  they  molt  several  times,  and  finally  at- 
tain full  size,  when  their  color  is  more  or  less  yellow- 
ish red.  The  color,  however,  varies  greatly,  and  it  is 
seldom  that  any  lots  on  two  different  plants  are 
found  to  be  exactly  alike. 

The  mites  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  kill,  and 
for  this  reason  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  not 
allowing  them  to  attain  sufficient  numbers  to  seri- 
ously check  the  growth  of  the  plants  before  putting 
forth  efforts  to  destroy  them.  It  is  the  general  be- 
lief among  florists  that  spiders  do  not  thrive  in  moist 
air,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case,  for  if 
proper  conditions  are  present  moist  air  alone  is  not 
sufficient  to  hold  them  in  check. 

Tobacco,  either  in  the  form  of  smoke,  or  ap- 
plied in  other  ways,  has  little  effect  upon  the  mites 
themselves,  and  probably  does  not  injure  the  eggs  in 
the  least.  Fumigation,  therefore,  is  useless  in  this 
connection.  What  is  true  of  tobacco  will  also  hold 
good  with  other  poisonous  gases,  such  as  cyanide 
gas,  which  is  now  coming  into  general  use  for  green- 
house work.  When  we  first  commenced  using  the 
cyanide  gas  we  were  hopeful  that  it  would  prove 
valuable  in  destroying  spider.  It  is  true  that  spiders 
subjected  to  the  fumes  of  this  gas  are  stupefied  for 
a  time,  but  they  soon  recover,  and  in  a  few  hours 
are  as  active  as  ever. 

Soaps  of  all  kinds  are  effective  in  destroying 
both  old  and  young  mites,  and  also  kill  a  large  pro- 


208  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

portion  of  the  eggs.  On  account  of  the  difTicuI- 
ties  in  using  soap,  however,  it  cannot  be  general- 
ly recommended,  but  for  certain  purposes,  which 
will  be  referred  to  later,  it  will  be  found  very 
useful. 

Water  applied  to  the  fohage  is  the  only  effective 
remedy  that  can  be  depended  upon  for  this  pest.  It 
must  be  apphed,  however,  with  considerable  force, 
the  object  being  to  wash  both  mites  and  eggs  from 
the  leaves.  To  do  this  successfully,  and  at  the  same 
time  not  injure  the  plants  and  not  bring  about  con- 
ditions favorable  for  other  diseases,  such  as  spot,  is 
a  difficult  problem.  The  chief  point  in  this  work  is 
to  keep  the  spiders  so  thoroughly  in  check  that  by 
the  time  the  plants  have  attained  nearly  their  full 
growth  in  the  Fall,  that  is,  by  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, spraying  can  be  entirely  stopped,  and  from  that 
time  on  during  the  Winter  httle  or  no  water  need 
be  applied  to  the  fohage.  We  have  found  that  where 
spiders  are  washed  from  the  leaves  a  certain  per  cent, 
of  them  get  back.  Many  are  killed  by  the  direct 
crushing  action  of  the  water,  and  thousands  not 
destroyed  in  this  way  are  knocked  off  into  the  soil 
and  probably  starve  to  death  before  they  can  again 
reach  food.  From  two  to  three  per  cent,  of  all  mites 
on  the  leaves  manage  to  get  back,  however,  and  this 
shows  the  importance  and  necessity  of  constant 
attention  in  the  matter  of  spraying. 

If  the  young  plants  are  perfectly  free  from 


RED  SPIDER  209 

spider  when  set  out  in  the  Spring  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  keep  them  so  by  spraying  from  two  to  three 
times  a  week  for  the  rest  of  the  growing  season. 
How^ever,  if  cuttings  are  rather  badly  infested  with 
spider,  we  recommend  their  treatment  before  plant- 
ing with  a  solution  of  soap.  We  have  tried  many 
soaps,  but  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  from 
Ivory  soap,  used  at  the  rate  of  one  five-cent  cake 
to  six  or  seven  gallons  of  water.  The  soap  should 
be  shaved  up  with  a  small  plane  and  dissolved  with 
about  one  gallon  of  hot  water,  and  then  sufficient 
cold  water  added  to  make  the  quantity  mentioned. 
By  using  a  small  hand  spraying  pump,  which  can 
readily  be  purchased  in  the  market  for  four  dollars 
and  fifty  cents  to  five  dollars,  the  leaves  can  be  thor- 
oughly wetted  with  the  soap  solution  at  a  compara- 
tively slight  expense  in  the  matter  of  material.  Five 
gallons,  in  fact,  will  be  sufficient  to  treat  three  or 
four  thousand  cuttings,  provided  they  are  in  flats 
and  are  easily  within  reach.  Allow  the  soap  to  re- 
main on  the  plants  two  or  three  hours,  then  thor- 
oughly syringe  with  clear  water.  This  treatment 
should  be  repeated  two  or  three  times,  until  the 
spiders  and  eggs  have  been  destroyed.  When  used 
in  this  way  the  soap  has  no  deleterious  eff"ects  on  the 
plants  and  has  a  tendency  to  protect  and  clean  the 
fohage  much  better  than  any  preparation  we  have 
used.  Tobacco  water  is  sometimes  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  a  tobacco  solution  made  from  an  extract 


210  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

is  also  applied.  We  do  not  recommend  these  prepa- 
rations, however,  because  they  have  a  tendency  to 
weaken  the  fohage. 

It  must  be  understood  that  it  is  not  safe  to  use 
strong  soaps,  such  as  whale  oil  and  soft  soaps,  be- 
cause they  are  very  apt  to  injure  the  fohage  and  are 
not  so  active  in  kilhng  the  mites  as  the  Ivory  soap. 
Spiders  treated  with  Ivory  soap  die  in  one  or  two 
minutes  after  the  solution  is  appHed.  When  viewed 
under  a  microscope,  full-grown  spiders  show  anxiety 
to  get  rid  of  the  soap  as  soon  as  it  reaches  them. 
This  lasts  only  for  a  few  seconds,  however,  and  then 
the  spider  quickly  folds  its  legs  beneath  itself  and  for 
a  few  seconds  there  may  be  some  violent  movements 
of  the  legs  and  other  parts  of  the  animaL  Even  if 
moved  to  fresh  water  a  few  minutes  after  soap  is 
apphed,  they  seldom  revive,  which  shows  how 
effectually  the  soap  operates. 

For  cuttings,  therefore,  the  soap  solution,  as 
recommended,  will  be  found  exceedingly  valuable. 
We  do  not  consider  it  advisable  to  continue  the  ap- 
plication of  soap  throughout  the  entire  season,  for 
the  reason  that  we  believe  it  has  a  tendency  to  inter- 
fere with  growth.  After  the  plants  are  put  out, 
however,  spraying  with  water  should  be  regularly 
practiced,  as  before  described,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose it  will  be  found  desirable  to  devise  some  means 
of  getting  on  the  minimum  amount  of  water  with 
the  maximum  amount  of  force.     It  will  require  a 


RED  SPIDER  211 

pressure  of  at  least  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  to 
prove  effective  against  spider.  To  get  the  water  on, 
however,  without  drenching  the  beds,  is  often  a 
rather  difficult  matter,  and  for  this  reason  we  have 
devised  a  simple  spraying  tip,  which  is  found  to 
answer  the  purpose  admirably.  This  spraying  tip 
may  be  attached  to  the  end  of  a  three-quarter-inch 
hose,  or,  where  the  beds  are  wide,  we  prefer  to  use 
a  short  lance  made  of  light  brass  pipe.  This  lance 
is  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter  and  usually  about 
two  feet  long.  The  spraying  tip  is  fastened  to  one 
end,  while  the  other  end  is  provided  with  a  connec- 
tion to  screw  on  to  the  three-quarter-inch  hose.  The 
tip  itself  consists  merely  of  a  piece  of  brass  flattened 
out  at  the  end  and  provided  with  a  narrow  sht, 
through  which  the  water  is  forced.  This  slit  is  so 
adjusted  that  the  water  issues  through  it  in  much 
the  shape  of  a  gas  flame,  but,  of  course,  very  much 
larger.  At  a  distance  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  inches 
from  the  end  of  the  sht  the  water  breaks  up  into 
innumerable  fine  drops,  which  are  thoroughly  effec- 
tive in  washing  the  spiders  from  the  leaves  and  not 
injuring  the  latter  in  the  least.  With  a  httle  practice 
the  beds  can  be  gone  over  quickly  with  this  device, 
and  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  may  be  so  thor- 
oughly washed  that  the  spiders  will  have  little  op- 
portunity for  development.  If  this  practice  is  fol- 
lowed throughout  the  growing  season  the  plants  will 
be  able  to  go  into  Winter  quarters  practically  free 


212  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

from  the  pest,  and  will,  therefore,  require  little 
additional  work  of  this  kind  during  the  Winter. 
Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  spray  during  the  Winter, 
the  work  must  be  done  on  a  bright  day,  so  that  the 
plants  will  dry  off  in  a  few  hours.  Never  spray  later 
than  eleven  o'clock,  otherwise  the  crowns  will  re- 
main wet  during  the  night. 

Green  and  Brown  Aphides.  Every  violet 
grower  is  probably  familiar  with  these  insects.  Up 
to  six  or  eight  years  ago  the  green  aphis  was  about 
the  only  one  that  ever  proved  troublesome.  Whether 
there  is  more  than  one  species  of  green  aphis  which 
attacks  the  violet  is  not  known.  They  can  be  found 
nearly  always,  and  it  requires  only  slight  neglect 
for  them  to  soon  become  exceedingly  troublesome. 
The  green  aphis,  with  which  every  grower  is  gener- 
ally familiar,  attacks  both  leaves  and  flowers,  but 
it  is  particularly  the  latter  that  are  likely  to  show 
the  most  serious  eff"ects  of  the  pest.  Ordinarily, 
when  the  leaves  are  infested  the  aphis  is  first 
found  on  leaves  which  have  begun  to  fade.  The 
yellow  leaves  harbor  the  insect,  but  it  soon  gains 
sufficient  strength,  if  neglected,  to  spread  to  per- 
fectly healthy  leaves  and  from  them  to  the  flowers. 
In  watching  plants  for  the  green  aphis,  therefore,  it 
is  always  best  to  keep  a  close  eye  on  the  yellowish 
leaves  as  they  are  picked  off".  If  the  green  fly  is 
found  upon  them  immediate  steps  must  be  taken 


APHIDES  213 

to  check  it  before  it  has  increased  sufficiently  to 
spread  to  other  parts  of  the  plant. 

When  the  fresh  and  growing  leaves  become 
infested,  and  when  it  spreads  to  the  flowers  and 
young  buds,  the  matter  becomes  serious  and  heroic 
efforts  will  be  required  to  get  rid  of  the  pest.  It 
is  when  the  insect  turns  its  attention  to  the  flower 
buds  and  flowers  that  the  most  serious  trouble 
results.  The  aphis  crawls  into  the  very  young  buds 
and  through  its  punctures  and  the  sucking  of  the 
juice  the  flower  is  very  much  distorted  and  is  made 
practically  worthless.  Two  or  three  of  these  insects 
in  a  bud  will  so  injure  it  that  the  flower  will  be 
valueless.  When  they  occur  in  great  numbers  and 
the  buds  and  flowers  are  badly  infested  the  former 
have  a  speckled  or  spotted  appearance  quite  unlike 
what  they  should  be.  Instead  of  the  beautiful  mauve 
color,  the  petals  have  whitish  blotches  scattered 
over  them,  and  this  detracts  greatly  from  their  ap- 
pearance and  makes  them  practically  worthless  so 
far  as  selhng  is  concerned. 

Nineteen  or  twenty  years  ago  the  brown  aphis 
began  to  attract  attention  among  violet  growers. 
This  insect  is  reddish  brown  in  color  and  resembles 
somewhat  the  one  which  attacks  the  chrysanthe- 
mum. We  first  observed  the  insect  seventeen  or 
eighteen  years  ago  on  some  plants  obtained  from 
Massachusetts.  Soon  after  this  we  saw  it  in  other 
localities,  and  now  it  seems  to  be  pretty  generally 


214  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

distributed  throughout  the  violet  growing  regions 
of  the  East.  The  effects  of  the  insect  are  serious.  In 
fact,  it  is  a  more  formidable  foe  than  the  green  one. 
Instead  of  attacking  the  older  and  more  resistant 
leaves,  the  brown  aphis  as  a  rule  will  be  found  on 
the  most  tender  growth  just  as  it  unfolds  from  the 
crown.  In  consequence  of  this  habit  of  the  insect 
the  plants  are  severely  crippled.  The  young  leaves 
are  attacked  as  fast  as  they  appear,  and  the  plants 
in  consequence  are  so  thoroughly  checked  and 
stunted  that  Httle  or  no  growth  takes  place.  It  will 
be  found  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  is  particularly 
active  through  the  growing  season,  that  is,  from 
about  the  middle  of  May  until  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber. It  seems  to  be  more  troublesome  in  houses  than 
in  the  open  air  or  in  frames,  but  this  may  be  accoun- 
ted for  perhaps  by  the  fact  that  the  insect  is  less 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  natural  enemies  under  glass 
and  has  a  better  opportunity,  therefore,  of  propa- 
gating itself.  Like  the  green  aphis,  it  also  attacks  the 
flowers,  but  seems  to  prefer  the  fohage,  and  as  a  rule 
is  confined  to  it.  Both  the  green  and  the  brown 
aphis  are  more  or  less  injured  by  cold,  but  still  they 
cannot  be  entirely  killed  by  freezing,  as  we  have 
reason  to  know  from  experience  in  growing  plants  in 
frames,  where  the  temperature  fell  as  low  as  six  or 
eight  degrees  below  zero.  I  n  such  cases  many  aphides 
were  destroyed,  but  enough  survived  to  start  a  new 
brood  as  soon  as  the  weather  became  favorable. 


APHIDES  215 

The  almost  universal  remedy  against  aphides 
under  glass  at  one  time  was  tobacco.  Fumigation 
has  been  the  principal  method  followed,  the  ordinary 
tobacco  being  stems  used  for  the  purpose.  Prob- 
ably in  some  sections  fumigation  with  tobacco  will 


64.  —Brown  aphides,  winged  and  wingless  forms.  (The  actual  size 
is  shown  in  the  cross  lines  betiveen  the  aritennce  of  the  top  figure) 

continue  to  be  used,  as  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
simplest  and  cheapest  method  of  combating  these 
pests. 

We  have  already  pointed  out,   however,   the 
serious  objections  to  the  continued  use  of  tobacco. 


2l6  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  certain  regions  where 
the  use  of  tobacco  is  more  apt  to  bring  on  spot  than 
in  other  sections.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  use 
tobacco,  great  care  must  be  exercised,  and  the 
grower  should  never  wait  until  the  insects  have 
accumulated  in  numbers;  otherwise,  the  smoke  will 
have  to  be  made  so  strong  that  injury  to  the  plant 
in  one  form  or  another  is  sure  to  follow.  Light 
fumigations,  given  at  regular  intervals,  will  prob- 
ably hold  both  kinds  of  aphides  in  check,  but  aside 
from  the  objections  already  mentioned  there  are 
others  of  a  serious  nature  which  must  also  be  con- 
sidered where  tobacco  is  used.  As  everyone  knows, 
the  odor  is  exceptionably  disagreeable  and  unde- 
sirable. This  is  particularly  the  case  in  violets, 
which  readily  take  up  many  foreign  odors  and  never 
fully  recover  from  the  effects.  It  is  therefore  found 
undesirable  to  pick  violets  in  a  house  which  has 
recently  been  fumigated  with  tobacco.  In  fact,  at 
least  a  week  should  elapse  after  fumigation  before 
any  picking  is  done.  These  reasons,  together  with 
others  which  have  been  given,  have  prompted  us 
to  practically  abandon  the  use  of  tobacco  in  every 
form  for  aphides  and  insects  of  this  nature. 

A  good  deal  has  been  written  about  the  use  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas  for  this  work.  After  many 
experiments  it  was  found  that  the  gas  could  be 
used  with  perfect  safety.  Moreover,  the  flowers  a 
few  hours  after  the  gas  had  been  used  were  perfectly 


FUMIGATION  WITH  CYANIDE  GAS       217 

sweet  and  showed  no  effects  whatever  from  the 
action  of  the  gas.  From  time  to  time  various  changes 
were  made  as  to  the  methods  of  apphcation,  until 
finally  the  practice  has  developed  into  a  compara- 
tively simple  operation,  which  may  be  described 
as  follows: 

In  all  cases  where  fumigation  with  this  gas  is 
to  be  followed  it  is  necessary  to  first  determine 
accurately  the  cubic  contents  of  each  house.  The 
determination  of  the  cubic  contents  of  the  house 
while  in  itself  a  comparatively  simple  problem,  has, 
in  the  eyes  of  many  growers,  difficulties  which  they 
are  not  wiUing  to  undertake.  The  cubic  contents  can 
be  determined  by  a  comparatively  simple  mathe- 
matical calculation,  but  perhaps  the  easiest  way  is 
by  a  method  described  by  the  writer  in  the  Florists' 
Exchange.*  This  method  involves  nothing  more 
difficult  than  the  mere  counting  of  a  number  of 
squares,  and  from  an  examination  of  the  accom- 
panying illustration  the  simphcity  of  the  method 
will  become  apparent.  Procure  from  a  stationery 
store  or  art  supply  store  some  cross-section  paper, 
such  as  is  represented  in  the  figure.  In  this  particu- 
lar case  squares  of  three  sizes  are  shown,  the  largest 
being  one-half  inch,  the  next  one-fourth  inch,  and 
the  smallest  one-sixteenth  inch  square.  The  one- 
fourth  inch  squares  may  represent  feet.      Now  de- 


*Florists'  Exchange,  Vol.  2.,  No.  5. 


2l8  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

termine  the  dimensions  of  the  house,  that  is,  the 
length,  width,  height  to  ridge,  and  height  on  sides, 
and  make  a  sketch  as  shown,  each  square,  or  one- 
fourth  inch,  representing  one  square  foot.  This 
particular  house,  it  will  be  seen,  is  eighteen  feet 
(eighteen  squares)  wide,  twelve  feet  to  the  ridge, 
six  and  one-half  feet  high  at  the  back,  and  four 
and  one-half  feet  high  in  front.  The  ridge  stands 
five  feet  from  the  back  wall,  as  shown  in  the  sketch. 
After  the  lines  are  drawn,  simply  count  the  squares 
inclosed,  and  the  number  of  squares  will  be  the 
number  of  square  feet.  The  parts  of  squares,  that 
is,  where  a  line  divides  a  square,  can  be  easily 
determined  by  counting  the  smallest  squares  or  by 
the  eye,  and  by  adding  these  fractions  of  squares 
together  the  number  of  whole  squares  may  be  readily 
found.  After  the  number  of  square  feet  is  obtained 
it  is  only  necessary  to  multiply  this  by  the  length 
of  the  house  in  feet  and  the  result  will  be  the  cubic 
contents.  For  example,  supposing  the  house  in 
question  is  one  hundred  feet  long,  it  contains  one 
hundred  and  fifty  and  one-half  squares,  or  square 
feet,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  one-half  multi- 
plied by  one  hundred  equals  15,050  cubic  feet.  The 
whole  operation  requires  less  time  than  it  takes  to 
describe  it  and  will  apply,  of  course,  to  a  house  of 
any  shape  or  size.  It  may  be  added  that  if  the 
cross-section  paper  cannot  be  obtained  readily  the 
sections  or  squares  can  be  laid  off  with  a  rule  and 


1 

iiHft!                        ,.'      ^"^^f^^HH 

*: 

ft"                     ^ 

f   H 

,„ 

p....-                                                                       i.::l 

;:q 

:::::::'                                                                      -£:; 

i~ 

^+[m                                       1? 

6,- 

,    .J 

I- 

1 

8- 

220  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

lead  pencil,  and  practically  the  same  results  obtainedT 
In  any  event,  it  is  only  necessary  to  get  an  accurate 
outline  drawing  of  the  section  of  the  house  and  by 
projecting  this  over  squares  as  indicated  the  number 
of  square  feet  in  the  section  can  be  readily  deter- 
mined. 

The  gas  is  made  by  combining  potassium  cyan- 
ide (ninety-eight  per  cent,  pure)  and  commercial 
sulphuric  acid.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  for  violets  0.15  of  a  gram  (one  gram  equals 
fifteen  and  a  half  avoirdupois)  of  ninety-eight  per 
cent,  cyanide  of  potassium  will  be  required  for  each 
cubic  foot  of  space  in  the  house,  and  from  these 
data  it  is  easy  to  figure  out  the  exact  amount  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  wanted  for  a  given  amount  of 
greenhouse  room.  When  the  cubic  contents  have 
been  determined  and  0.15  of  a  gram  of  the  cyanide 
of  potassium  has  been  weighed  out  for  each  cubic 
foot,  the  next  step  is  to  crush  all  the  large  lumps  and 
place  the  cyanide  in  small  tin  or  metalhc  boxes, 
so  as  to  have  it  ready  for  use  in  the  house.  One 
box  may  be  placed  at  every  few  paces  apart,  in 
an  earthenware  saucer.  These  saucers  should  be 
placed  in  the  walk,  about  equal  distances  apart, 
then  add  the  sulphuric  acid;  after  which  the  box 
containing  the  cyanide  should  be  dropped  in,  but 
the  person  who  drops  it  must  leave  the  house  at 
once.  The  door  is  then  closed  and  in  about  a 
minute  (sometimes  less)  the  violent  action  of  the 


FUMIGATION  WITH  CYANIDE  GAS  221 

chemical  changes  can  be  heard.  No  attempt 
whatever  must  be  made  to  enter  the  houses  at  this 
time,  for  by  doing  so  death  would  unquestionably 
result  in  a  Jew  seconds.  Previous  to  setting  ofF  the 
gas  all  the  ventilators  must  be  put  down,  and  if  the 
house  is  loose  it  is  well  to  sprinkle  the  roof  with 
water.  Arrangements  must  be  made,  however, 
for  opening  some  of  the  ventilators  from  the  outside. 
From  the  time  the  gas  begins  to  generate  it  should 
be  allowed  to  remain  twenty  minutes  in  the  house 
and  then  the  doors  and  ventilators  should  be 
opened  from  the  outside  and  air  freely  admitted. 
When  opening  the  ventilators  from  the  outside 
take  care  not  to  breathe  the  gas.  The  house  should 
not  be  entered  under  any  circumstances  for  over 
half  an  hour,  for  it  will  take  at  least  that  time  for 
the  fumes  to  be  driven  out. 

Unless  the  aphides  are  very  abundant  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  use  the  gas  more  than  once  a  month 
during  the  growing  season.  However,  the  fumiga- 
tion should  not  be  done  at  regular  periods,  but 
should  be  carried  on  whenever  there  is  sufficient 
evidence  that  aphides  are  increasing  in  undesirable 
numbers.  This  treatment  never  fails  to  do  the 
work  when  proper  care  is  taken,  and  there  is  no 
injury  whatever  to  fohage  or  flowers. 

Cut  Worms.  The  leaves  of  violets  are  some- 
times attacked  and  injured  by  cut  worms.     This 


222  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

is  especially  the  case  in  late  Spring  after  the  new 
plants  have  been  put  out.  The  cut  worms,  as  a  rule, 
are  more  troublesome  in  houses  where  sashes  are 
removed  or  where  the  sides  are  open.  There  appear 
to  be  several  species  of  these  insects,  and  as  the 
worms  are  voracious  eaters,  they  can  in  a  short  time 
do  considerable  damage  to  small  plants.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  young  plants  having  only  six  or 
eight  good  leaves  completely  cut  down  by  these 
pests.  Sometimes  the  worms  instead  of  cutting  off 
the  leaves  will  cut  off  the  stems,  and  of  course  in 
such  cases  the  plant  is  ruined.  The  worms  appear 
to  be  the  same  kind  as  those  which  feed  upon 
grasses.  In  fact,  where  grass  is  allowed  to  grow 
around  the  houses  and  in  the  beds,  the  insects  are, 
as  a  ride,  much  more  apt  to  be  troublesome.  The 
worms  are  often  found  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  it  is  seldom  that  they  can  be  seen  on  the  plants 
in  the  da}^  time,  unless  in  cloudy  weather  or  in  dark 
places. 

About  all  that  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  holding 
this  pest  in  check  is  to  watch  the  plants  carefully,' 
and  at  the  first  evidence  of  injury  to  search  for  the 
worms  and  destroy  them.  As  a  rule,  if  the  worms 
are  not  found  on  the  plant,  they  will  be  discovered 
just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  near  the 
stem.  By  digging  in  the  soil  around  the  plants,  the 
insect  can  be  brought  from  its  hiding  place  and 
destroyed.     In  closed  houses,  where  fumigation  is 


SAWFLY  223 

practiced,  the  cut  worms  are  of  course  destroyed, 
but  in  the  field  and  in  frames  the  collection  and 
destruction  of  the  pest,  as  already  stated,  is  about  all 
that  can  be  recommended.  The  fact  that  these 
worms  live  upon  grasses  shows  the  importance  of 
keeping  the  beds  perfectly  clean,  and  also  the  im- 
portance of  keeping  the  ground  perfectly  free  of 
grass  for  a  considerable  distance  around  the  frames 
or  the  beds,  if  the  latter  are  made  in  the  field.  So 
far  as  our  observations  go,  the  moth  which  deposits 
the  eggs  from  which  the  cut  worms  are  hatched 
seldom  if  ever  selects  the  violet.  The  eggs  are  more 
likely  to  be  deposited  on  grasses  and  other  plants, 
and  from  these  the  worms  reach  the  violet.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  growers  are  neglectful  about 
keeping  old  beds  and  the  corners  of  houses  free  from 
weeds  and  grass.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  allow  grass 
and  weeds  to  grow  up  behind  the  beds  in  some  cases, 
and  it  is  just  such  places  that  harbor  worms.  Rigid 
attention  should  therefore  be  given  to  cleanhness, 
which  is  as  important  in  this  case  as  in  any  of  the 
others  mentioned. 

Sawfly.  The  leaves  of  violets  during  the 
growing  season — that  is,  from  June  to  September — 
are  sometimes  injured  by  a  small  caterpillar-Kke 
worm,  which  has  been  determined  to  be  the  larva 
of  a  species  of  sawfly.  This  insect  sometimes  does 
considerable  damage  by  cutting  the  leaves,  giving 


224  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

the  whole  plant  a  ragged  appearance.  The  larva  of 
the  sawfly  seems  to  prefer  cool,  shady  places,  and, 
as  a  rule,  is  found  near  the  sides  of  the  house  or  in 
the  shade  of  the  gutters.  Picking  and  destroying 
the  insects  is  the  only  satisfactory  means  of  getting 
rid  of  them,  except  where  fumigation  with  the  hy- 
drocyanic acid  gas  is  practiced.  In  such  cases  this 
insect,  together  with  many  other  kinds,  will  be 
effectually  destroyed.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
the  eggs  from  which  the  sawfly  larva  are  hatched 
are  deposited  on  the  young  plants  while  they  are 
still  in  flats  or  before  they  have  been  transplanted 
to  permanent  beds.  It  will  often  be  found  advan- 
tageous in  such  cases  to  apply  some  material  that 
will  destroy  the  eggs  and  young  larvae  before  the 
plants  are  set  where  they  are  to  stand.  For  this 
purpose  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  Ivory  soap 
solution,  the  same  as  recommended  for  red  spider. 
It  can  be  applied  with  a  hand  spraying  pump,  or 
the  solution  can  be  made  up  and  kept  in  an  ordinary 
water  pail,  and  the  plants  as  taken  up  can  have  their 
stems  and  leaves  dipped.  This,  however,  is  not  as 
satisfactory  as  spraying,  and  is  resorted  to  usually 
only  where  cuttings  are  Hfted  directly  from  sand 
and  there  is  no  soil  adhering. 

Gallfly  Maggots.  We  have  never  had  any 
difficulty  with  this  pest,  but  in  some  sections  of  the 
country  it  has  occasioned  serious  damage.     The 


GALLFLY  MAGGOTS  225 

maggot  is  very  small  and  is  yellowish  white  in  color. 
It  is  found  as  a  rule  in  the  youngest  leaves  as  they 
push  out  from  the  crown  of  the  plant.  The  affected 
leaves  as  they  come  out  are  badly  curled  and  the 
maggots  are  found  only  where  the  leaf  is  curled. 
The  maggots  become  so  abundant  that  all  the  leaves 
become  curled  in  this  way,  and  as  a  result  the  whole 
plant  is  seriously  stunted. 

The  effects  of  the  maggots  are  to  seriously 
dwarf  the  growth  of  the  plants  and  practically  to 
stop  the  development  of  the  flower  buds.  In  many 
cases  where  the  affected  leaves  are  pulled  off,  the 
side  crowns  will  start,  but  they  soon  become  infested 
with  the  maggot.  The  maggot  is  the  larva  of  a 
small  gallfly,  which  looks  like  a  miniature  wasp. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  fmd  maggots  in  the  soil,  and 
from  the  latter  they  seem  to  be  able  to  reach  the 
young  leaves  in  some  way.  Whether  they  pass  from 
the  leaves  to  the  soil  and  there  attain  the  adult  state 
we  are  not  able  to  say,  and  so  far  as  we  know  this 
point  has  not  been  determined.  Our  observations 
lead  us  to  beheve  that  the  pest  is  much  more  apt 
to  occur  in  localities  where  proper  attention  has  not 
been  paid  to  mixing  the  soil  and  to  drainage.  On 
low,  heavy,  wet  ground  the  pest  is  much  more  apt 
to  be  injurious  than  where  good  soil  is  at  hand  and 
where  drainage  is  perfect.  Certain  kinds  of  manures 
seem  to  favor  the  development  of  the  maggot. 
Whether  it  is  capable  of  living  in  the  manure,  or 


226 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


on  plants  alone,  has  not  been  determined,  so  far  as 
we  are  aware.  It  seems  to  be  a  fact,  however,  that 
where  manure  is  not  clean,  that  is,  where  it  is  mixed 
with  refuse  in  the  shape  of  garbage  and  other 
material,  the  pest  is  apt  to  breed. 


66. — Sawfly  (enlarged) 


There  is  no  satisfactory  remedy  for  this  maggot 
when  once  it  has  infested  a  house.  We  cannot 
speak  as  to  the  effect  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  upon 
it.  It  is  not  practicable  to  pick  the  leaves,  because 
in  such  cases  the  crowns  are  permanently  injured 


z 


-Sk 


V 


tK: 


% 


/ 


228 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 


and  the  flowering  is  therefore  either  entirely  stopped 
or  checked.  Air-slacked  Kme  thrown  into  the  crown 
will  be  found  beneficial.  It  should  be  thrown  into 
the  plant  with  considerable  force  and  plenty  should 
be  allowed  to  reach  the  soil.   Following  this  practice 


68. — Gallfly  (greatly  magnified) 

and  giving  the  best  cultural  conditions  possible, 
such  as  allowing  abundance  of  air  and  stirring  the 
soil,  is  about  all  that  can  be  suggested  in  the  line 
of  treatment. 


PHLYCTAENIA  RUBIGALIS  229 

Phlyctaenia  RUBIGALIS.  VioIct  pknts  are 
sometimes  attacked  during  Midsummer  by  the  larva 
of  a  small  moth  which  has  been  identified  under  the 
above  name.  The  larvae  attack  the  leaves,  destroy- 
ing the  softer  parts  and  leaving  only  the  skeleton 
or  framework  of  the  tissues.  The  illustration  does 
not   show   this    plainly,    as    the   camera   does   not 


69. — Larvce  and  motbs  of  PhlyctOBnia  rubigalis 

distinguish  the  colors  sufficiently.  Plants  grown 
in  shady  places  are  usually  most  liable  to  attack. 
Generally  the  worms  are  surrounded  by  a  light 
web,  and  occasionally  two  leaves  are  fastened 
together  in  order  to  give  them  protection.  The 
insect  never  produces  serious  injury,  but  it  is  well 
to  watch  for  it  and  take  such  steps  to  destroy  it  as 
may  be  practicable.  It  may  be  destroyed  by  pick- 
ing the  leaves  containing  the  larvae,  but  it  is  best 
to  fumigate  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 


230  COST    OF   PRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  IX 


COST    OF   PRODUCTION   AND   PROFITS 

In  a  matter  of  this  kind  it  is  difficult  to  give 
anything  but  approximate  figures.  Location,  prox- 
imity to  market,  ability  to  get  fuel,  soil,  and  manure, 
the  cost  of  labor,  etc.,  are  all  factors  that  play  an 
important  part  in  making  an  estimate  as  to  the 
actual  cost  of  producing  the  crop.  In  making  an 
estimate  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  value  of  the  ground,  the  cost  of  houses, 
and,  in  fact,  everything  connected  with  the  work, 
just  as  a  commercial  man  would  consider  all 
phases  of  his  business  in  any  effort  at  determining 
profit  and  loss.  It  will  be  best  to  make  the  estimates 
on  a  definite  number  of  plants,  as  it  is  easier  to 
figure  from  this  standpoint,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
that  the  cost  of  production  will  be  relatively  less 
for  ten  thousand  plants  than  it  is  for  five  thousand. 
The  same  will  hold  true  as  we  decrease  the  number 
of  plants— that  is,  five  thousand  can  be  grown  at 
relatively  less  cost  than  one  thousand.  There 
are  a  number  of  reasons  for  this,  chief  of  which  is 
the  fact  that  the  more  plants  there  are  the  more 


COST    AND    PROFITS  23 1 

possible  it  is  for  the  grower  to  so  arrange  all  of  his 
operations  as  not  to  have  a  loss  of  material  or  time. 
For  instance,  it  costs  less  relatively  to  heat  houses 
holding  ten  thousand  plants  than  it  does  to  heat 
houses  holding  five  thousand.  The  same  will  hold 
true  for  labor,  for  soil,  for  fertilizers,  and,  in  fact, 
for  all  matters  connected  with  the  work. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  such  as  we  find  in 
the  vicinity  of  many  of  our  large  cities,  we  may 
place  the  cost  of  ground  and  houses  sufficient  for 
ten  thousand  plants  at,  roughly,  three  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars.  In  some  respects  this  is  an 
over-estimate,  but  it  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
ground  used  for  this  purpose  is  worth  not  less  than 
six  to  eight  hundred  dollars  an  acre  and  that  the 
houses  are  of  the  same  kind  as  those  we  have 
already  described.  We  have,  therefore,  to  es- 
timate as  one  of  the  items  of  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion the  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  houses, 
ground,  and  other  fixtures  connected  with  the  work. 
We  may  put  this  as  a  total  at  four  thousand 
dollars,  so  that  the  interest  at  six  per  cent,  would 
be  two  hundred  and  forty  dollars.  There  is  also 
to  be  considered  the  question  of  wear  and  tear  on 
the  houses  and  other  materials  used  in  connection 
with  growing  the  plants.  This  may  be  placed  at  not 
less  than  eight  per  cent,  a  year.  In  other  words, 
renovating  walks,  replacing  broken  glass,  painting, 
and  other  necessary  repairs  will  cost  not  less  than 


232  COST    OF   PRODUCTION 

two  hundred  and  eighty  dollars  a  year,  and  may 
easily  exceed  three  hundred. 

The  cost  of  fuel  will,  of  course,  vary  widely,  but 
under  ordinary  conditions,  that  is,  in  regions  where 
the  temperature  seldom  goes  lower  than  twelve 
degrees  below  zero  for  any  length  of  time,  the 
amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  heat  houses  holding 
ten  thousand  plants  will  probably  not  exceed  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  dollars. 

The  cost  of  labor,  not  including  that  of  the 
grower  himself,  which  is  not  estimated  here,  should 
scarcely  exceed  six  hundred  dollars  per  year. 
In  other  words,  the  grower  himself,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  one  good  man,  can  easily  handle  ten  thou- 
sand plants.  It  may  be  necessary  to  make  some  al- 
lowance for  the  busy  season,  when  possibly  an  extra 
man  would  have  to  be  taken  on  for  a  month.  With 
the  grower  understanding  his  business  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  have  an  expert  as  an  assistant.  An  ordinary 
laborer,  provided  he  is  quick,  active,  ana  wilhng  to 
work,  will  answer  every  purpose.  Such  help  can  be 
obtained  for  forty  to  fifty-five  dollars  per  month. 
Labor,  therefore,  we  estimate  at  six  hundred  to 
six  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  year.  For 
incidentals,  including  express  charges  and 
various  minor  matters,  we  estimate  one  hundred 
dollars.  These  figures  will  vary,  of  course,  in 
different  locahties,  but  are,  we  beheve,  a  fair 
average. 


COST    AND    PROFITS  233 

Summarized,  the  total  outlay  for  ten  thousand 
plants  per  year  is  as  follows: 

Interest  on  money  invested  in  ground,  houses, 

etc $240 

Repairs 300 

Fuel 155 

Labor 600 

Incidentals 100 

Total $1,395 

The  total  output  of  money  per  year,  therefore, 
in  growing  ten  thousand  plants  is  estimated  at  one 
thousand  three  hundred  and  ninety-five  dollars. 
This  is  an  expenditure  of  fourteen  cents  per  plant 
so  that  the  actual  cost  of  maintaining  and  growing 
each  plant,  basing  the  estimate  on  ten  thousand 
plants,  is  near  enough  fourteen  cents.  We  have 
given  what  in  our  judgment  is  a  fair  average  at 
the  present  day,  basing  our  calculations  upon  a 
general  rise  of  15  per  cent,  on  the  costs  as  quoted 
in  the  previous  edition  of  this  book;  but,  of  course, 
these  figures  can  be  reduced  by  rigid  attention  to 
details  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  all  the  points 
necessarily  connected  with  the  work.  If  the  owner 
is  wiUing  to  take  a  hand  and  to  attend  largely  to  the 
firing  and  look  after  the  watering  and  ventilation, 
the  cost  will  be  materially  decreased.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  delegates  this  work  to  others  he 
must  necessarily  pay  for  it,  and  in  consequence 
the  cost  of  production  will  be  increased. 


234  COST    OF    PRODUCTION 

Turning  our  attention  now  to  the  other  phase 
of  the  question,  namely,  the  profits,  we  are  con- 
fronted at  the  outset  with  the  same  difficulties  as 
mentioned  in  the  first  instance — that  is,  the  profits 
will  depend  in  large  measure  on  the  market,  on  the 
abihty  of  the  man  to  properly  handle  his  crop,  and 
above  all  on  the  quahty  of  the  product. 

It  must  be  understood  that  at  first  the  grower 
will  have  to  be  content  with  relatively  low  prices, 
for  the  reason  that  he  has  yet  to  make  a  reputation, 
and  until  this  is  accomplished  he  may  not  hope  to 
command  from  the  market  the  highest  returns. 
There  is  always  an  opening  for  good  stock,  but,  as 
we  have  pointed  out  elsewhere,  it  is  not  only  neces- 
sary to  have  the  stock  good,  but  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  that  it  should  be  so  handled  and  so  put 
on  the  market  as  to  create  a  demand  for  it.  As  soon 
as  the  demand  is  created  it  is  not  so  difficult  to 
increase  prices. 

As  to  the  yield  of  flowers  per  plant,  this  will 
depend  altogether  on  the  knowledge  of  the  growler. 
Ordinarily  fifty  flowers  per  plant  is  considered  a 
good  average,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  this 
average  should  not  be  increased  to  seventy-five  or 
even  one  hundred.  1  he  grower  should  not  be  content 
with  less  than  seventy-five  salable  flowers  per  plant, 
arid  his  aim  and  effort  should  be  to  succeed  in  mak- 
ing every  plant  average  this  number.  On  the  basis 
of  fifty  flowers  per  plant,  however,  the  total  yield 


COST    AND    PROFITS  235 

from  ten  thousand  plants  would  be  five  hundred 
thousand  flowers.  If  the  yield  be  increased  to 
seventy-five  flowers  per  plant  the  total  number  of 
flowers  is,  of  course,  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand. Now,  this  increase  of  the  total  number  of 
flowers  does  not  mean  the  increasing  of  the  cost  of 
production  to  any  great  extent.  The  cost  is  rela- 
tively little  more  than  for  producing  fifty.  The 
main  additional  item  of  cost  to  be  considered  is 
that  connected  with  the  handhng  of  the  crop,  which 
is  a  relatively  small  amount.  Let  us  assume,  how- 
ever, that  the  grower  averages  fifty  flowers  per 
plant,  and  that  he  is  so  situated  that  the  best  prices 
he  is  able  to  command  will  average  about  sixty 
cents  or  a  httle  more  per  hundred  for  the  season. 
This  will  mean  that  he  receives  approximately 
the  following  prices: 

September  flowers $0.50  per  hundred 

October  flowers 50  per  hundred 

November  flowers i.oo  per  hundred 

December  flowers i.oo  per  hundred 

January  flowers 0.75  per  hundred 

February  flowers 0,35  per  hundred 

March  flowers 0.30  per  hundred 

April  flowers 0-75  per  hundred 

Average 0.64  per  hundred 

These  months,  as  already  indicated,  will  give 
him  an  average  of  sixty-four  cents,  providing  his 
plants  yield  as  they  ordinarily  do — that  is,  a  heavy 
flowering  in  October,   November  and  April,   with 


236  PRICES    FOR    FLOWERS 

lighter  crops  during  the  other  months.  If  he  can 
by  a  proper  handhng  of  his  plants  and  by  proper 
selection  so  change  the  flowering  period  as  to  get 
the  heaviest  yields  during  the  months  of  December 
and  January,  he  can,  as  will  readily  be  seen,  in- 
crease his  average,  because  the  flowers  will  be  worth 
more  at  this  time.  In  other  words,  it  is  far  better 
to  get  fifty  thousand  flowers  in  December  and 
twenty-five  thousand  in  March  than  to  get  twenty- 
five  thousand  in  December  and  fifty  thousand  in 
March. 

It  is  entirely  within  the  range  of  possibility  to 
grow  the  crop  so  as  to  increase  the  number  of 
flowers  during  the  regular  Winter  months.  An 
average  of  sixty  cents  per  hundred  blooms  is  com- 
paratively low^  and  should  not  be  considered  as  the 
limit  by  any  means.  With  a  reputation  established 
for  growing  good  flowers,  and  for  putting  them  on 
the  market  in  a  fresh  state  and  always  in  excellent 
condition,  the  range  of  prices  can  be  materially 
increased.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  flowers 
should  not  average  considerably  more,  and,  fur- 
thermore, there  is  no  reason  why  each  plant 
should  not  be  grown  so  as  to  yield  an  average  of 
one  hundred  flowers  per  plant.  As  an  example 
of  what  has  been  accomplished  we  give  the  yields 
for  eight  months  of  jourteen  hundred  Lady  Hume 
Campbell  plants  in  one  of  our  houses  and  the  prices 
in  those  vears,  as  follows: 


COST    AND    PROFITS 


237 


October, 

November, 

December, 

January, 

February, 

March, 

April, 

May, 


897: 

897 

897: 


898 


Per  100 

8,000  flowers $0.50 

1 1,950  flowers 0.75 

12,000  flowers 1. 00 

1 1,830  flowers 1.25 

17,250  flowers 0.75 

23,900  flowers 0.75 

23,850  flowers 0.50 

3,800  flowers 0.50 


Average $0.75 

this  house,  containing 
yielded  an  average  of 
and   the   average   price 


Total 112,580 

It   will   be   seen   that 
fourteen    hundred   plants, 
eighty   flowers   per   plant, 
received  was  seventy-five  cents  per  hundred,  so  that 
the  value  of  the  yield  of  each  plant  was  sixty  cents. 

On  the  basis  of  an  average  of  sixty  cents  per 
hundred,  the  total  value  of  the  yield  from  ten 
thousand  plants  would  be  three  thousand  dollars,  or 
thirty  cents  per  plant.  We  have  already  seen  that 
the  cost  of  producing  such  a  plant  is  fourteen  cents, 
so  that  the  net  profit  is  sixteen  cents  per  plant,  or 
one  thousand  six  hundred  dollars  for  the  estabhsh- 
ment.  Therefore,  if  the  average  yield  is  increased, 
as  it  should  be,  to  seventy-five  or  one  hundred 
flowers  per  plant,  the  profits  will  be  increased  ap- 
proximately sixty-four  and  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-eight per  cent,  respectively. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  income 
from  ten  thousand  plants  grown  in  houses  and 
handled  properly  should,  year  in  and  year  out,  aver- 


238  NET  PROFITS 

age  up  to  two  thousand  dollars,  while  the  total 
expenses  should  not  exceed  one  thousand  dollars. 
This  seems  a  small  amount  for  seven  or  eight 
months'  labor,  but  we  have  kept  the  expense  side 
of  the  account  high  purposely,  so  as  to  have  some- 
thing in  hand.  Of  course,  competition  is  keener 
now,  and  the  Winter  sweet  peas  and  antirrhinums 
occupy  part  of  the  place  that  the  violets  did  for- 
merly. 

Some  successful  growers  follow  the  violet  crop 
with  sweet  peas  or  tomatoes  (after  about  April 
18),  or  cucumbers  (for  Midsummer). 

Violets  can  be  grown  in  frames  cheaper  than 
they  can  in  houses.  With  good  care  the  total  cost 
per  plant  will  not  exceed  five  cents,  or  ten  cents  per 
hundred  for  the  flowers,  reckoning  that  the  average 
yield  of  the  latter  is  fifty  flowers  per  plant.  Such 
flowers  ought  to  net  the  grower  fift\^  cents  per 
hundred,  leaving  a  profit  over  all  expenses  of  forty 
cents  per  hundred  or  approximately  four  dollars  per 
sash.  Finally,  it  must  be  remembered  that  while 
these  figures  are  fair  averages,  and  are  based  on 
actual  experiences,  they  cannot  be  approximated 
without  strict  attention  to  everv  detail. 


VIOLET  GROWING   FOR  BEGINNERS  239 


CHAPTER  X 


VIOLET    GROWING    FOR    BEGINNERS 

There  have  been  many  inquiries  from  persons 
who  are  desirous  of  embarking  in  violet  culture  and 
who  wish  to  begin  in  a  small  way  at  first,  partly  to 
gain  experience  and  partly  to  satisfy  a  love  for  the 
kind  of  work  which  violet  growing  involves.  The 
chief  points  upon  which  information  is  desired  are 
(i)  the  minimum  number  of  plants  required  to 
make  a  successful  start,  (2)  the  source  from  which 
stock  plants  can  be  obtained,  (3)  the  cheapest  and 
best  form  of  structure  to  use  as  a  beginning,  (4)  the 
capital  required  to  make  a  proper  start  and  (5)  the 
profit  which  might  result,  all  things  being  con- 
sidered, from  a  specific  investment. 

We  beheve  that  it  is  always  the  part  of  wisdom 
to  start  with  enough  plants  to  make  it  pay  a  dealer 
to  handle  the  flowers  from  them.  Of  course  a  start 
can  be  made  with  one  hundred  plants,  or  even  less, 
but  the  crop  from  this  small  number  will  be  so 
irregular  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  dispose  of  same, 
except  at  considerable  sacrifice.  With  five  hundred 
plants  a  fair  start  can  be  made,  but  it  will  be  still 
better  to  secure  not  less  than  one  thousand  plants  if 


240  VIOLET  GROWING   FOR   BEGINNERS 

room  is  available.  It  takes  very  little  more  time 
to  grow  one  thousand  plants  than  it  does  to  grow 
five  hundred,  and  the  results  are  much  more  satis- 
factory. From  one  thousand  plants,  properly 
handled,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  flowers  can  be 
picked  regularly  to  warrant  a  dealer  in  handhng 
them  and  to  warrant  him  furthermore  in  giving  a 
little  better  price  for  the  product  than  if  the  same 
were  coming  in  at  irregular  intervals. 

Stock  plants,  or  plants  to  start  with,  may  be 
obtained  from  regular  dealers  who  advertise  in 
nearly  all  the  florists'  papers.  These  advertisements 
will  usually  be  found  in  the  papers  at  the  proper 
season  for  stock;  that  is,  usually  in  the  Fall  from 
October  to  December,  and  in  the  Spring  from  Feb- 
ruary to  May.  An  examination  of  any  of  the 
reputable  florists'  journals  at  this  time  will  enable 
a  person  who  is  desirous  of  going  into  the  business 
to  get  stock  at  very  reasonable  prices.  It  may  be, 
of  course,  that  stock  can  be  obtained  from  some  lo- 
cal grower,  and  if  this  is  practicable  it  will  be  better 
than  sending  a  distance  for  it,  where  the  risk  of 
injury  by  shipment  must  be  considered.  All  of  the 
suggestions  in  regard  to  stock,  cuttings,  etc.,  which 
have  been  off"ered  in  previous  chapters,  will  apply 
here.  It  will  be  better  in  all  cases  to  endeavor  to 
get  well-rooted  sand  cuttings  rather  than  divided 
plants.  The  earher  the  young  plants  can  be  ob- 
tained, other  things  being  equal,  the  better.   If  they 


STOCK  PLANTS  24 1 

can  be  secured  by  the  middle  of  February  they  may 
then  be  potted  into  two-inch  pots  and  kept  in  a 
coldframe  free  from  frost  until  the  proper  time  for 
setting  them  out.  These  young  plants  are  handled 
in  just  about  the  same  manner  as  strawberry 
plants. 

The  stock  being  secured,  the  next  point  to  con- 
sider is  the  form  of  structuie  to  be  used  in  growing 
the  crop.  Either  coldframes  or  a  cheap  house  will 
be  suitable  for  the  purpose,  but  for  reasons  which 
have  been  given  in  previous  chapters,  the  house  is 
preferable.  However,  if  this  cannot  be  erected  the 
first  year,  frames  may  be  used.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  glass  for  the  frames  until  Autumn, 
when  the  plants  are  ready  to  be  covered.  We  have 
already  described  in  detail  the  construction  of 
frames,  and  have  shown  at  what  cost  they  can  be 
erected  complete,  with  mats  for  protection  in 
Winter.  If  a  person  starts  with  five  hundred  plants 
it  is  safe  to  estimate  that  the  cost  of  frames,  includ- 
ing glass  and  mats,  will  be  twenty  to  twenty-five 
dollars.  If  one  thousand  plants  are  to  be  grown, 
the  cost,  of  course,  will  be  just  about  double,  or 
perhaps  a  little  less,  say  thirty-five  dollars.  The 
disadvantages  of  frames  have  been  mentioned,  it 
having  been  pointed  out  that  they  are  unrehable 
and  that  even  with  close  attention  the  plants  in 
them  are  often  frozen,  and  during  cold  weather  it  is 
impossible   to   pick   flowers   for   days   at   a   time. 


242  VIOLET  GROWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Furthermore,  no  one  except  the  most  robust  can 
endure  the  exposure  necessarily  connected  with  the 
growing  of  plants  in  frames.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
cheap  house,  properly  constructed,  is  comfortable 
at  all  times,  and  is  really  a  delightful  place  in 
which  to  work  during  the  sunshiny  days  of  Winter, 
regardless  of  the  weather.  Such  a  house  has  already 
been  described.  A  house  suitable  for  holding  one 
thousand  plants,  properly  constructed,  would  cost 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  dollars. 

It  might  be  well  to  describe  somewhat  more  in 
detail  a  simple  method  of  heating  such  a  house, 
especially  as  this  is  an  important  feature  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work.  A  suitable  boiler,  of  which 
there  are  many  styles  from  which  to  select  and 
which  need  not  cost  more  than  from  thirty-five  to 
forty  dollars,  may  be  placed  on  a  level  with  the 
bottom  of  the  walk,  in  one  corner  of  the  house, 
preferably  at  the  north  end.  The  arrangement  of 
the  heating  pipes  is  simple.  A  one  and  one-half 
inch  pipe  is  run  out  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  and 
carried  along  the  roof  to  the  far  end  of  the  house, 
allowing  a  drop  of  about  one  inch  in  every  ten  feet; 
that  is,  the  end  of  the  pipe  at  the  far  end  of  a 
sixty  foot  house  would  be  six  inches  lower  than 
where  it  starts  from  the  upright  pipe  leading  from 
the  boiler.  Here  proper  fittings  are  put  on  and  four 
one  and  one-quarter  inch  pipes  are  connected  with 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  HOUSE PROFITS  243 

the  first  one  run  out.  Two  of  these  pipes  are 
brought  back  to  the  boiler  along  the  east  wall  and 
two  along  the  west,  allowing  the  same  fall  as  for 
the  one  and  one-half  inch  pipe.  At  the  north  end 
the  four  return  pipes  are  all  brought  into  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler  by  proper  connections,  and 
the  job  is  complete.  In  order  to  keep  the  boiler 
and  pipe  at  all  times  filled  with  water  and  to  allow 
for  the  expansion  it  is  necessary  to  add  an  expan- 
sion tank  to  the  heating  system.  This  may  be 
attached  directly  over  the  boiler  and  should  be 
sfightly  higher  than  the  highest  point  on  the  flow 
pipe.  As  soon  as  the  water  warms,  after  the  fire  is 
started,  it  flows  through  the  one  and  one-half  inch 
pipe  and  back  through  the  four  smaller  pipes  at 
the  sides,  giving  out  its  genial  heat  all  the  time. 
Practically  the  same  system  is  followed  as  in  any 
ordinary  range  boiler  where  the  hot  water  comes 
out  from  the  top  of  the  water  back,  flows  into  the 
boiler  and  the  cold  w^ater  flows  into  the  bottom. 

The  profits  from  such  work  are  always  difficult 
to  estimate,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  there  being 
many  conditions  which  have  to  be  considered. 
There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  with  proper  care 
the  results  the  first  year  should  not  be  sufficient  to 
cover  all  expenses  incurred  in  the  building  of  a 
house  sufficient  for  one  thousand  plants,  the  pur- 
chase of  stock,  fuel,  etc.,  or  in  round  numbers  from 
two   hundred   and   seventv-five   to   three   hundred 


244  VIOLET  GROWING  FOR  BEGINNERS 

dollars.  After  managing  a  house  of  this  kind  for 
two  or  three  years  successfully  the  experience 
gained  will  warrant  the  building  of  others  until, 
with  proper  care  and  judicious  management,  the 
yearly  income  from  one's  own  labor  may  be  made 
to  reach  a  very  satisfactory  figure. 


INDEX 


Page 

Aphides,  Green  and  Brown 212 

Beginners,  Violet  Growing  for 239-244 

Boilers 67-76 

Bone 42-44 

Brown  Aphides 212 

Bud  Nematodes 201 

Bunching i  56- 1 59 

Cleaning  Plants 132 

Construction: 

Of  Frames 88-94 

Of  Greenhouses 57-64 

Of  Sash  Houses 81-86 

Cost  of  Production  and  Profits 230-238 

Crown,  Dividing  the 100 

Crown  Rot 197 

Culture,  Past  and  Present 31 

Cuttings  from  Crowns 108 

Cuttings,  Rooted 106 

Cut  Worms 22 1 

Diseases  and  Their  Treatment.     (See  also  Insects.) 

Spot,  or  Spot  Disease 172 

Wilt,  or  Stem  Rot 181 

Nanism,  or  Stuntedness 185 

Scald,  or  Edge  Burn 189 

Oedema,  or  Wart  Disease 193 

Crown  Rot 197 

Root  Galls 198 

Bud  Nematodes 201 

Engines,  Gasoline 97 

Farming,  Violet 32 

Feeding 1 36 

Fertilizers 42,  136 

Frames: 

Construction  of 88-93 

Heating 94 

Material  and  Cost 95 


Page 

Freezing  Soil 41 

Fumigation: 

With  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas 216 

With  Tobacco 215 

Gallfly  Maggots 224 

Green  Aphides 212 

Greenhouses: 

Construction  of  Various  Tj'pes  of  Houses 57-64 

Heatirig 64-76 

Material  and  Cost 77-8 1 

Handling  Crop 155 

Heating: 

Greenhouses 64-76 

Sash  Houses 86 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas,  Fumigation  with 216 

Insects  and  Other  Pests.     (See  also  Diseases.) 

Bud  Nematodes 201 

Red  Spider 203 

Green  and  Brown  Aphides 212 

Cut  Worms 221 

Sawfly 223 

Gallfly  Maggots 224 

Phlyctaenia  rubigalis 229 

Introduction  of  Varieties 25 

Lime 42 

Maggots,  Gallfly 224 

Manure 42,  135 

Marketing  Crop 149 

Mats  for  Frames 90,  92,  93 

Mulching 135 

Nanism 185 

Nematodes,  Bud 201 

Oedema 193 

Off'shoots,  Cutting,  from  Main  Plant 105 

Origin  of  Varieties 25 

Packing i  59-167 

Phlyctaenia  rubigalis 229 

Picking 1 56 

Pipes,  Water 98 

Planting 124-130 

Plowing  Soil 49 

Production,  Cost  of 230-238 

Profits  in  Growing  Violets 230-238 


Propagating :  Page 

Dividing  the  Crown lOO 

Cutting  Offshoots 105 

Cuttings  from  Crowns 108 

Cuttings  in  Sand  and  Soil 114 

Fall  Propagation 115 

Red  Spider 203 

Rooted  Cuttings 106,  109 

Root  Galls 198 

Runners,  Cutting  from  Main  Plant 103 

Sand  Rooted  Cuttings 109 

Sash  Houses: 

Construction  of 81-86 

Heating 86 

Alaterial  and  Cost 86 

Sawfly 223 

Scald 1 89 

Selection  of  Stock  for  Vigor  and  Productiveness 1 17-124 

Soil: 

Physical  Properties  of 37 

Texture  of 38,  39 

Mixing 39,  45-47 

Structure  of 40 

Handling 41 

Stacking 41,  42 

Freezing 41 

Use  of  Lime  in 42 

Use  of  Chemical  Fertilizer  in 42 

Use  of  Manure  in 42 

Use  of  Bone  in 42-44 

Heavy  and  Light  Ingredients  of 45 

Experimenting  with,  Dangers  of 46 

Quantity  Necessary 47 

Plowing 49 

Spot,  or  Spot  Disease 172 

Stacking  Soil 41,  42 

Staking 121 

Stem  Rot 181 

Stock,  Selection  of,  for  Vigor  and  Productiveness 1 17-124 

Stuntedness 185 

Syringing 135 

Tagging 121 

Tanks,  Fertilizer 99 

Tanks,  Water 96 

Temperature 138-141 


Page 

Temperature  Records 142-147 

Tobacco,  Fumigation  with 216 

Varieties: 
Single: 

Odorata 19 

Russian 19 

Welsiana 19 

Governor  Herrick 20 

Luxonne 20 

California,  or  Madame  E.  Arene 20 

Princess  of  Wales,  or  Princess  de  Galles 20 

La  France 21 

Dorsett 21 

Double: 

Neapolitan 21 

Lady  Hume  Campbell 24 

Marie  Louise .  24 

Farquhar  and  Imperial 24 

Swanley  White 25 

Madam  Millet 25 

Ventilation 84,  1 39 

Wart  Disease 193 

Watering I33,  I34 

Water  Supply: 

Tank 96 

Windmill 97 

Gasoline  Engine 97 

Piping 98 

Wilt 181 

Windmills 97 


HECKMAN 

BINDERY  INC. 


W 


m.     MAY  86 


